Abstract
Zoos worldwide are visited by great numbers of people, and many of these visitors prefer to see large, rare mammals, the so-called charismatic megafauna. Zoos and the researchers who use them also appear to prioritise these species, as evidenced by the number of scientific publications which investigate the welfare of charismatic rather than non-charismatic species. However, the charismatic animals also attract more welfare-related concern from animal activist groups and the media than the non-charismatics. To this extent the charismatics could be regarded as problematic animals in the zoo. In this chapter, we compare three charismatic taxa (elephants, great apes and cetaceans) with three closely matched non-charismatic taxa (tapirs, gibbons and manatees) from the point of view of how frequently they are portrayed in welfare-related stories in the media, how much scientific research is undertaken on their welfare and how many of them are housed in zoos. Undoubtedly, from these perspectives the charismatics receive more attention than the non-charismatics. However, there is also evidence that their popularity helps zoos achieve their conservation mission, both by increasing funding available for field conservation and by contributing towards education and awareness raising of conservation issues. Nevertheless, the non-charismatics are equally deserving of attention, and more work needs to be done on their welfare.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
References
Albert C, Luque GM, Courchamp F (2018) The twenty most charismatic species. PLoS One 13(7):e0199149
Allen K (1995) Ethical parameters for marketing and public relations. In: Norton BG, Hutchins M, Stevens EF, Maple TL (eds) Ethics on the ark. Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington DC, pp 289–296
Anderson R, Waayers R, Knight A (2016) Orca behavior and subsequent aggression associated with oceanarium confinement. Animals 6(8):49
Asher L, Williams E, Yon L (2015) Developing behavioural indicators, as part of a wider set of indicators, to assess the welfare of elephants in UK zoos. Defra Project WC1081: final report. https://irep.ntu.ac.uk/id/eprint/30334/
Azevedo CS, Cipreste CF, Young RJ (2007) Environmental enrichment: a GAP analyses. Appl Anim Behav Sci 102:329–343
Balmford A, Mace GM, Leader-Williams N (1996) Designing the ark: setting priorities for captive breeding. Conserv Biol 10(3):719–727
Bates LA, Lee PC, Njiraini N, Poole JH, Sayialel K, Sayialel S, Moss CM, Byrne RW (2008) Do elephants show empathy? J Conscious Stud 15:204–225
BBC (2016) Harambe gorilla killing: zoo defends action. Web site: https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-us-canada-36414813. Accessed 18 Sept 2018
BBC (2017) Elephant tourism is ‘fuelling cruelty’. Web site: https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-40501667. Accessed 13 Sept 2018
Boorer M (1972) Some aspects of stereotyped patterns of movement exhibited by zoo animals. Int Zoo Yearb 12:164–168
Born Free (2018) Web site: http://www.bornfree.org.uk/about-us/. Accessed 13 Aug 2017
Bostock SSC (1993) Zoos and animal rights: the ethics of keeping animals. Routledge, London/New York
Carr N (2016) An analysis of zoo visitors’ favourite and least favourite animals. Tour Manag Perspect 20:70–76
Chester Zoo (2017) Trustees’ report and financial statements, year ended 31st December 2017. https://www.chesterzoo.org/corporate-information/annual-reports/
Clegg ILK, Borger-Turner JL, Eskelinen HC (2015) C-well: the development of a welfare assessment index for captive bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops truncatus). Anim Welf 24:267–282
Dawkins MS (1985) The scientific basis for assessing suffering in animals. In: Singer P (ed) In defence of animals. Basil Blackwell, Oxford, pp 27–40
Dawkins MS (2004) Using behaviour to assess animal welfare. Anim Welf 13:53–57
Dawkins MS (2006) A user’s guide to animal welfare science. Trends Ecol Evol 21:77–82
Defra (2017) Secretary state standards of modern zoo practice. Appendix 8, Specialist exhibits, elephants
DeGrazia D (2002) Animal rights: a very short introduction. Oxford University Press, Oxford
Douglas-Hamilton I (2009) The current elephant poaching trend. Pachyderm 45:154–157
Ducarme F, Luque DM, Courchamp F 2013 What are “charismatic species” for conservation biologists? Biosci Master Rev 10:1–8
Esson M, Moss A (2014) Zoos as a context for reinforcing environmentally responsible behaviour: the dual challenges that zoo educators have set themselves. J Zoo Aquarium Res 2:8–13
Fa JE, Funk SM, O’Connell D (2011) Zoo conservation biology. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge
Falk JH, Reinhard EM, Vernon CL, Bronnenkant K, Heimlich JE, Deans NL (2007) Why zoos and aquariums matter: assessing the impact of a visit to a zoo or aquarium. Association of Zoos and Aquariums, Silver Springs
Fraser D (2009) Assessing animal welfare: different philosophies, different scientific approaches. Zoo Biol 28:507–518
Fravel L (2003) Critics question zoos’ commitment to conservation. [Online] Accessed from: https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/2003/11/news-zoo-commitment-conservation-critic/ Accessed on: 17.09.2018
Gallup G (1970) Chimpanzees: self recognition. Science 167:86–87
Gregg J (2013) Are dolphins really smart? Oxford University Press, Oxford
Grunauer PP, Walguarnery JW (2018) Relative response to digital tablet devices and painting as sensory enrichment in captive chimpanzees. Zoo Biol 37(4):269–273
Guardian (2017) The dark side of wildlife tourism: thousands of Asian elephants held in cruel conditions. Web site: https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2017/jul/06/thousands-elephants-exploited-tourism-held-cruel-conditions. Accessed 13 Sept 2018
Gusset M, Dick G (2010) ‘Building a future for wildlife’? Evaluating the contribution of the world zoo and aquarium community to in situ conservation. Int Zoo Yearb 44:183–191
Gusset M, Dick G (2011) The global reach of zoos and aquariums in visitor numbers and conservation expenditures. Zoo Biol 30:566–569
Hancocks D (1995) Lions and tigers and bears, Oh No! In: Norton BG, Hutchins M, Stevens EF, Maple TL (eds) Ethics on the ark. Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington DC, pp 31–37
Hill SP, Broom DM (2009) Measuring zoo animal welfare: theory and practice. Zoo Biol 28:531–544
Hosey G, Pankhurst S, Melfi V (2013) Zoo animals behaviour, management and welfare, 2nd edn. Oxford University Press, Oxford
Irie N, Hasegawa T (2009) Elephant psychology: what we know and what we would like to know. Jpn Psychol Res 51:177–181
Irie-Sugimoto N, Kobayashi T, Sato T, Hasegawa T (2008) Evidence of means-end behavior in Asian elephants. Anim Cogn 11:359–365
Jamieson D (1985) Against zoos. In: Singer P (ed) In defence of animals. Basil Blackwell, Oxford, pp 108–117
Jamieson D (1995) Zoos revisited. In: Norton BG, Hutchins M, Stevens EF, Maple TL (eds) Ethics on the ark. Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington DC, pp 52–66
Kreger MD, Hutchins M (2010) Ethics of keeping mammals in zoos and aquariums. In: Kleiman DG, Thompson KV, Baer CK (eds) Wild mammals in captivity: principles and techniques for zoo management, 2nd edn. University of Chicago Press, Chicago, pp 3–10
Leader-Williams N, Smith RJ, Walpole MJ (2001) Elephant hunting and conservation. Science 293(5538):2203–2204
Luebke JF, Watters JV, Packer J, Miller LJ, Powell DM (2016) Zoo visitors’ affective responses to observing animal behaviors. Visitor Stud 19:60–76
Lukas KE, Ross SR (2005) Zoo visitor knowledge and attitudes toward gorillas and chimpanzees. J Environ Educ 36:33–48
Marino L (2007) Cetacean brains: how aquatic are they? Anat Rec 290:694–700
Marino L, Lilienfeld SO, Malamud R, Nobis N, Broglio R (2010) ‘Do zoos and aquariums promote attitude change in visitors?’ A critical evaluation of the American zoo and aquarium study. Soc Anim 18:126–138
Markowitz H (1982) Behavioral enrichment in the zoo. Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York
Markowitz H, Schmidt M, Moody A (1978) Behavioural engineering and animal health in the zoo. Int Zoo Yearb 18:190–195
Maynard L (2017) Media framing of zoos and aquaria: from conservation to animal rights. Environ Commun. https://doi.org/10.1080/17524032.2017.1310741
Melfi VA (2009) There are big gaps in our knowledge, and thus approach, to zoo animal welfare: a case for evidence-based zoo animal management. Zoo Biol 28:574–588
Meyer-Holzapfel M (1968) Abnormal behaviour in zoo animals. In: Fox MW (ed) Abnormal behavior in animals. WB Saunders, Philadelphia, pp 476–503
Miller LJ, Zeigler-Hill V, Mellen J, Koeppel J, Greer T, Kuczaj S (2013) Dolphin shows and interaction programs: benefits for conservation education? Zoo Biol 32:45–53
Mittermeier RA, Rylands AB, Wilson DE (2013) Handbook of the mammals of the world, vol 3 Primates. Lynx Edicions, Barcelona
Montagu A (2003) The history of the dolphin. In: Frohoff T, Peterson B (eds) Between species: celebrating the dolphin-human bond. Sierra Club Books, San Francisco, pp 27–40
Mooney A (2018) Zoos: does size matter? In: Proceedings of the 20th anniversary research conference, 9–11th July 2018. Living Coasts, Paignton Zoo and South Devon College
Morris D (1964) The response of animals to a restricted environment. Symp Zool Soc Lond 13:99–118
Moss A, Essen M (2010) Visitor interest in zoo animals and the implications for collection planning and zoo education programmes. Zoo Biol 29:715–731
Moss A, Jensen E, Gusset M (2014) Evaluating the contribution of zoos and aquariums to Aichi biodiversity target 1. Conserv Biol 29:537–544
One Green Planet (2018a) Why elephants don’t belong in zoos! Web site: http://www.onegreenplanet.org/animalsandnature/why-elephants-dont-belong-in-zoos/. Accessed 13 Sept 2018
One Green Planet (2018b) New elephant sanctuary will provide safe home for elephants retired from brutal logging industry. Web site: https://www.onegreenplanet.org/news/elephant-sanctuary-retired-brutal-logging-industry/. Accessed 13 Sept 2018
Pearson EL, Lowry R, Dorrian J, Litchfield CA (2014) Evaluating the conservation impact of an innovative zoo-based educational campaign: ‘Don’t palm us off’ for orang-utan conservation. Zoo Biol 33:184–196
PETA (2017) Web site: https://www.peta.org/issues/animals-in-entertainment/zoos/. Accessed 13 Aug 2017
PETA (2018) Get elephants out of zoos. Web site: https://www.peta.org/issues/animals-in-entertainment/zoos/get-elephants-zoos/. Accessed 13 Sept 2018
Plotnik JM, de Waal FBM, Reiss D (2006) Self-recognition in an Asian elephant. Proc Natl Acad Sci 103:17053–17057
Powell DM, Bullock EVW (2014) Evaluation of factors affecting emotional responses in zoo visitors and the impact of emotion on conservation mindedness. Anthrozoös 27:389–405
Price A, Boeving ER, Shender MA, Ross SR (2015) Understanding the effectiveness of demonstration programs. J Mus Educ 40:46–54
Prior H, Schwarz A, Güntürkün O (2008) Mirror-induced behavior in the Magpie (Pica pica): evidence of self-recognition. PLoS Biol 6(8):e202. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pbio.0060202
Regan T (1985) The case for animal rights. In: Singer P (ed) In defence of animals. Basil Blackwell, Oxford, pp 13–26
Regan T (1995) Are zoos morally defensible? In: Norton BG, Hutchins M, Stevens EF, Maple TL (eds) Ethics on the ark. Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington DC, pp 38–51
Roth G, Dicke U (2005) Evolution of the brain and intelligence. Trends Cogn Sci 9:250–257
Salas M, Manteca X, Abaigar T, Delclaux M, Ensenat C, Martinez-Nevado E, Quevedo MA, Fernandez-Bellon H (2018) Using farm animal welfare protocols as a base to assess the welfare of wild animals in captivity-case study: Dorcas Gazelles (Gazella dorcas). Animals 8(7). https://doi.org/10.3390/ani8070111
SeaWorld (2010) Tilikum. Seaworld animal profiles [online]. Available at: http://www.orcahome.de/swprofiles1.pdf
Shapiro ME, Shapiro HG, Ehmke EE (2018) Behavioral responses of three lemur species to different food enrichment devices. Zoo Biol 37(3):146–155
Singer P (1990) Animal liberation, 2nd edn. Random House, New York
Sitati NW, Walpole MJ, Smith RJ, Leader-Williams N (2003) Predicting spatial aspects of human-elephant conflict. J Appl Ecol 40:667–677
The Independent (2014) The killing of Marius the giraffe opens an important debate about genetics, animal rights and zoo inbreeding. Web site: https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/europe/the-killing-of-marius-the-giraffe-opens-an-important-debate-about-genetics-animal-rights-and-zoo-9120219.html. Accessed 18 Sept 2018
The Telegraph (2017) Berlin’s beloved polar bear cub Fritz diesin Tierpark Zoo. Web site: https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2017/03/07/berlins-beloved-polar-bear-cub-fritz-dies-tierpark-zoo/. Accessed 14 Sept 2018
Tudge C (1992) Last animals at the zoo: how mass extinctions can be stopped. Oxford University Press, Oxford
Ward PI, Mosberger N, Kistler C, Fischer O (1998) The relationship between popularity and body size in zoo animals. Conserv Biol 12(6):1408–1411
Whitworth AW (2012) An investigation into the determining factors of zoo visitor attendances in UK zoos. PLoS One 7(1):e29839. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0029839
Wuichet J, Norton G (1995) Differing conceptions of animal welfare. In: Norton BG, Hutchins M, Stevens EF, Maple TL (eds) Ethics on the ark. Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington DC, pp 235–250
Zimmerman A, Hatchwell M, Dickie LA, West C (eds) (2007) Zoos in the 21st century: catalysts for conservation? Cambridge University Press, Cambridge
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2020 Springer Nature Switzerland AG
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Hosey, G., Melfi, V., Ward, S.J. (2020). Problematic Animals in the Zoo: The Issue of Charismatic Megafauna. In: Angelici, F., Rossi, L. (eds) Problematic Wildlife II. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-42335-3_15
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-42335-3_15
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, Cham
Print ISBN: 978-3-030-42334-6
Online ISBN: 978-3-030-42335-3
eBook Packages: Biomedical and Life SciencesBiomedical and Life Sciences (R0)