Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

The Role of Discrimination, Acculturation, and Ethnic Identity in Predicting Psychosocial Functioning of Turkish Immigrant Youth

  • Chapter
Contextualizing Immigrant and Refugee Resilience

Part of the book series: Advances in Immigrant Family Research ((ADIMFAMRES))

Abstract

There is ample evidence that immigrant youth show lower levels of psychosocial functioning compared to non-immigrant youth in European countries, even though the processes that buffer these negative outcomes among immigrant youth are not well understood. Informed by a risk and resilience developmental perspective, the present study investigates the roles of background variables (e.g. age, gender, immigrant generation), discrimination experiences, acculturation orientations, and multi-ethnic identities on different aspects of psychosocial functioning (e.g. depression, loneliness, social anxiety, and self-esteem) among Turkish immigrant youth living in Austria. The sample comprised a total of 284 Turkish adolescents (50% girls) including 140 early adolescents (M = 12.03 years, SD = 0.77) and 144 middle adolescents (M = 15.28 years, SD = 0.97), 82 first-generation and 202 second-generation immigrants. Depression, loneliness, social anxiety, self-esteem, and acculturation orientations were measured with culturally validated instruments. A series of confirmatory factor analyses demonstrated excellent construct validity of a newly developed discrimination measure comprising global discrimination as well as discrimination by peers and teachers and in public places. Findings revealed that early adolescents had lower levels of psychosocial functioning compared to middle adolescents and second-generation immigrants had higher levels of self-esteem compared to first-generation immigrants. Different forms of discrimination experiences and different acculturation variables predicted the four aspects of psychosocial functioning. High proficiency in German language and older age were the most consistent protective factors, while high levels of discrimination by peers was the most consistent risk factor for psychosocial functioning. Implications for educational practices and policies are discussed.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 84.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 109.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD 109.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

References

  • Asher, S., & Wheeler, V. (1985). Children’s loneliness: A comparison of rejected and neglected peer status. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 53, 500–505. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-006X.53.4.500

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Aydın, A., & Tekinsav-Sütçü, S. (2007). Ergenler için sosyal kaygı ölçeğinin (ESKÖ) geçerlik ve güvenirliğinin incelenmesi [A validity and reliability study of social anxiety scale for adolescents]. Child and Adolescent Mental Health Journal/Çocuk ve Gençlik Ruh Sağlığı Dergisi, 14, 79–89.

    Google Scholar 

  • Banting, W., & Kymlicka, K. (2006). Immigration, multiculturalism, and the welfare state. Ethics & International Affairs, 20, 281–304. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1747-7093.2006.00027.x

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Baysu, G., Phalet, K., & Brown, R. (2011). Dual identity as a two edged sword: Identity threat and minority school performance. Social Psychology Quarterly, 74, 121–143. https://doi.org/10.1177/0190272511407619

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Benner, A. D., & Graham, S. (2013). The antecedents and consequences of racial/ethnic discrimination during adolescence: Does the source of discrimination matter? Developmental Psychology, 49, 1602–1613. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0030557

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Berry, J. W. (1997). Immigration, acculturation and adaptation. Applied Psychology: An International Review, 46(1), 5–68. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1464-0597.1997.tb01087.x

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Berry, J. W., Kim, U., Minde, T., & Mok, D. (1987). Comparative studies of acculturative stress. International Migration Review, 21(3), 491–511. https://doi.org/10.1177/019791838702100303

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Berry, J. W., Phinney, J. S., Sam, D. L., & Vedder, P. (2006). Immigrant youth: Acculturation, identity, and adaptation. Applied Psychology: An International Review, 55(3), 303–332. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1464-0597.2006.00256.x

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Brown, C. S., & Chu, H. (2012). Discrimination, ethnic identity, and academic outcomes of Mexican immigrant children: The importance of school context. Child Development, 83, 1477–1485. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2012.01786.x

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Çuhadaroğlu, F. (1986). Adolesanlarda benlik saygısı [Self-esteem among adolescents] (Unpublished master’s thesis). Hacettepe University: Ankara, Turkey.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dimitrova, R., Chasiotis, A., & Van de Vijver, F. (2016). Adjustment outcomes of immigrant children and youth in Europe: A meta-analysis. European Psychologist, 21, 150–162. https://doi.org/10.1027/1016-9040/a000246

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • European Commission. (2017). Education and training monitor 2017. Luxembourg, UK: Publications Office of the European Union.

    Google Scholar 

  • European Parlament. (2018). Eurobarometer 9.1. Brussels: European Commission. Retrieved from http://www.europarl.europa.eu/austria/resource/static/files/eb901_parlemeter_fact_at-de-.pdf. On 3rd Aug 2019

  • Ferring, D., & Filipp, S.-H. (1996). Messung des Selbstwertgefuehls: Befunde zu Reliabilitaet, Validitaet und Stabilitaet der Rosenberg-Skala. Diagnostica, 42, 284–292.

    Google Scholar 

  • Garcia Coll, C., Crnic, K., Lamberty, G., Wasik, B. H., Jenkins, R., Garcia, H. V., & McAdoo, H. P. (1996). An integrative model for the study of developmental competencies in minority children. Child Development, 67(5), 1891–1914. https://doi.org/10.2307/1131600

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Güngör, D., & Bornstein, M. H. (2009). Gender, development, values, adaptation, and discrimination in acculturating adolescents: The case of Turk heritage youth born and living in Belgium. Sex Roles, 60(7–8), 537–548. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-008-9531-2

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kovacs, M. (1981). The Children’s Depression Inventory (CDI). Psychopharmalogical Bulletin, 21, 995–998.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kunuroglu, F., Yagmur, K., van de Vijver, F. J., & Kroon, S. (2015). Consequences of Turkish return migration from Western Europe. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 49, 198–211. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijintrel.2015.1.004

  • La Greca, A., & Lopez, N. (1998). Social anxiety among adolescents: Linkages with peer relations and friendships. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 26, 83–94. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1022684520514

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lerner, R. M., Lerner, J. V., Bowers, E. P., & Lewin-Bizan, S. (2012). Thriving among immigrant youth: Theoretical and empirical bases of positive development. In A. S. Masten, K. Liebkind, & D. J. Hernandez (Eds.), Realizing the potential of immigrant youth (pp. 307–323). New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Liebenberg, L., Theron, L., Sanders, J., Munford, R., van Rensburg, A., Rothmann, S., & Ungar, M. (2016). Bolstering resilience through teacher-student interaction: Lessons for school psychologists. School Psychology International, 37, 140–154. https://doi.org/10.1177/0143034315614689

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Marks, A. K., & Garcia Coll, C. (2018). Education and developmental competencies of ethnic minority children: Recent theoretical and methodological advances. Developmental Review, 50A, 90–98. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dr.2018.05.004

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Masten, A. S. (2014). Global perspectives on resilience in children and youth. Child Development, 85, 6–2. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.12205

  • Masten, A. S., & Cicchetti, D. (2016). Resilience in development: Progress and transformation. In D. Cicchetti (Ed.), Developmental psychopathology (Risk, resilience, and intervention) (Vol. 4, 3rd ed., pp. 271–333). New York, NY: Wiley. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781119125556.devpsy406

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Melfsen, S. (1998). Die deutsche Fassung der Social Anxiety Scale for Children Revised (SARC-R-D): Psychometrische Eigenschaften und Normierung. Diagnostica, 44, 153–163.

    Google Scholar 

  • Melfsen, S., & Florin, I. (1997). Ein Fragebogen zur Erfassung sozialer Angst bei Kindern (SASC-R-D). Kindheit und Entwicklung, 6, 224–229.

    Google Scholar 

  • MIPEX. (2019). www.mipex.eu, retrieved on 28th July 2019

  • Motti-Stefanidi, F. (2018). Who among immigrant youth do well and why? Public policy implications of research into immigrant youth adaptation. In M. Matthes, L. Pulkkinen, C. Clouder, & B. Heys (Eds.), Improving the quality of childhood in Europe (Vol. 7, pp. 121–131). Brussels, Belgium: Alliance for Childhood European Network Foundation.

    Google Scholar 

  • Motti-Stefanidi, F., & Asendorpf, J. B. (2012). Perceived discrimination of immigrant adolescents in Greece. European Psychologist, 17(2), 93–104.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Motti-Stefanidi, F., Berry, J., Chryssochoou, X., Sam, D. L., & Phinney, J. (2012). Positive immigrant youth adaptation in context: Developmental, acculturation, and social-psychological perspectives. In A. S. Masten, K. Liebkind, & D. J. Hernandez (Eds.), Realizing the potential of immigrant youth (pp. 117–158). New York, NY: Cambridge University Press. The Jacobs Foundation Series on Adolescence.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Musso, P., Moscardino, U., & Inguglia, C. (2018). The multigroup ethnic identity measure – revised (MEIM-R): Psychometric evaluation with adolescents from diverse ethnocultural groups in Italy. European Journal of Developmental Psychology, 15, 395–41. https://doi.org/10.1080/17405629.2016.1278363

  • Muthen, L. K., & Muthen, B. O. (2017). Mplus User’s guide (8th ed.). Los Angeles, CA: Muthen & Muthen.

    Google Scholar 

  • Öy, B. (1991). Children’s depression inventory: A study of reliability and validity. Turkish Psychiatry Journal/Türk Psikiyatri Dergisi, 2, 132–136.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pascoe, E. A., & Smart Richman, L. (2009). Perceived discrimination and health: A meta-analytic review. Psychological Bulletin, 135, 531–554. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0016059

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Phinney, J., & Ong, A. (2007). Conceptualization and measurement of ethnic identity: Current status and future directions. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 54, 271–281. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0167.54.3.271

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Phinney, J. S., Berry, J. W., Vedder, P., & Liebkind, K. (2006). The acculturation experience: Attitudes, identities, and behaviors of immigrant youth: Acculturation, identity, and adaptation across national contexts. In J. W. Berry, J. S. Phinney, D. Sam, & P. Vedder (Eds.), Immigrant youth in cultural transition. Acculturation, identity and adaptation across national contexts (pp. 71–116). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780415963619-4

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Phinney, J. S., & Devich-Navarro, M. (1997). Variations in bicultural identification among African American and Mexican American adolescents. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 7(1), 3–32. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327795jra0701_2

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Reijerse, A., Vanbeselaere, N., Duriez, B., & Fichera, G. (2015). Accepting immigrants as fellow citizens: Citizenship representations in relation to migration policy preferences. Ethnic and Racial Studies, 38(5), 700–717. https://doi.org/10.1080/0141987.2014.916812

  • Reitz, A. K., Asendorpf, J. B., & Motti-Stefanidi, F. (2015). When do immigrant adolescents feel personally discriminated against? Longitudinal effects of peer preference. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 39, 197–209. https://doi.org/10.1177/0165025414567008

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Roccas, S., Sagiv, L., Schwartz, S., Halevey, N., & Eidelson, R. (2008). Toward a unifying model of identification with groups: Integrating theoretical perspectives. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 12, 280–306. https://doi.org/10.1177/1088868308319225

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rosenberg, M. (1965). Society and the adolescent self image. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Schmitt, M. T., Branscombe, N. R., Postmes, T., & Garcia, A. (2014). The consequences of perceived discrimination for psychological well-being: A meta-analytic review. Psychological Bulletin, 140, 921–948. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0035754

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sirin, S. R., Ryce, P., Gupta, T., & Rogers-Sirin, L. (2013). The role of acculturative stress on mental health symptoms for immigrant adolescents: A longitudinal investigation. Developmental Psychology, 49(4), 736–748. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0028398

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Spears Brown, C., & Bigler, R. S. (2005). Children’s perceptions of discrimination: A developmental model. Child Development, 76, 533–553. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2005.00862.x

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Statistik Austria. (2018). Migration & integration. zahlen. daten. indikatoren 2017. Wien, Austria: Statistik Austria.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stefanek, E., Strohmeier, D., Fandrem, H., & Spiel, C. (2012). Depressive symptoms in native and immigrant adolescents: The role of critical life events and daily hassles. Anxiety, Stress & Coping, 25, 201–217. https://doi.org/10.1080/10615806.2011.605879

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Stiensmeier-Pelster, J., Schürmann, M., & Duda, K. (2000). DIKJ. Depressions-Inventar für Kinder und Jugendliche. Göttingen, Germany: Hogrefe Verlag für Psychologie.

    Google Scholar 

  • Strohmeier, D., & Doğan, A. (2012). Emotional problems and victimization among youth with national and international migration experiences living in Austria and Turkey. Emotional & Behavioural Difficulties, 17(3), 287–304. https://doi.org/10.1080/13632752.2012.704311

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Strohmeier, D., & Fricker, A. (2007). Interkulturelles Lernen: Unbekanntes Unterrichtsprinzip oder gelebte schulische Praxis? [Intercultural learning: Unknown didactic principle or daily practice?]. Erziehung und Unterricht. Österreichische Pädagogische Zeitschrift, 157, 115–128.

    Google Scholar 

  • Strohmeier, D., & Schmitt-Rodermund, E. (2008). Immigrant youth in European countries: The manifold challenges of adaptation. European Journal of Developmental Psychology, 5(2), 129–137. https://doi.org/10.1080/17405620701556953

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Strohmeier, D., & Spiel, C. (2003). Immigrant children in Austria: Aggressive behavior and friendship patterns in multicultural schoolclasses. Journal of Applied School Psychology, 19(2), 99–116.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Suárez-Orozco, C., Motti-Stefanidi, F., Marks, A., & Katsiaficas, D. (2018). An integrative risk and resilience model for understanding the adaptation of immigrant-origin children and youth. American Psychologist, 73(6), 781–796. https://doi.org/10.1037/amp0000265

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Suárez-Orozco, C., & Suarez-Orozco, M. (2001). Children of immigration. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Tarhan, N. (1996). Relationships sociometric status, sex, academic achievement, school type and grade level with loneliness levels of secondary school students (Unpublished master’s thesis). Middle East Technical University, Ankara, Turkey

    Google Scholar 

  • Titzmann, P. F., & Jugert, P. (2019). Youth in superdiverse societies. In Growing up with globalization, diversity, and acculturation. London, UK: Routledge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tynes, B. M., Umana-Taylor, A. J., Rose, C. A., Lin, J., & Anderson, C. J. (2012). Online racial discrimination and the protective function of ethnic identity and self-esteem for African American adolescents. Developmental Psychology, 48, 343–355. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0027032343

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ungar, M. (2008). Resilience across cultures. British Journal of Social Work, 38, 218–235. https://doi.org/10.1093/bjsw/bcl343

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ungar, M. (2011). The social ecology of resilience: Addressing contextual and cultural ambiguity of a nascent construct. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 81, 1–17. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1939-0025.201.01067.x

  • Ungar, M., Ghazinour, M., & Richter, J. (2013). Annual research review: What is resilience within the social ecology of human development? Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 54, 348–366. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcpp.12025

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Uslu, S., & Cassina, G. (1999). Türkiye’den Avrupa’ya göç [Migration from Turkey to Europe]. Ankara, Turkey: Turkish Workers Union/Türkiye Hak İşçi Sendikaları Konfederasyonu.

    Google Scholar 

  • Van de Vijver, F. J. R., Blommaert, J., Gkoumasi, G., & Stogianni, M. (2015). On the need to broaden the concept of ethnic identity. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 46, 36–46. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijintrel.2015.03.021

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Vedder, P., Sam, D. L., & Liebkind, K. (2007). The acculturation and adaptation of Turkish adolescents in North-Western Europe. Applied Development Science, 11(3), 126–136.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Verkuyten, M. (2002). Perceptions of ethnic discrimination by minority and majority early adolescents in the Netherlands. International Journal of Psychology, 37(6), 321–332.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Verkuyten, M. (2012). The social psychology of ethnic identity (European monographs in social psychology) (2nd ed.). London, UK: Psychology Press. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203338704

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Vertovec, S. (2007). Super-diversity and its implications. Ethnic and Racial Studies, 30, 1024–1054. https://doi.org/10.1080/01419870701599465

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Weldon, S. A. (2006). The institutional context of tolerance for ethnic minorities: A comparative, multilevel analysis of Western Europe. American Journal of Political Science, 50(2), 331–349. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-5907.2006.00187.x

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author Note

The present study was supported by Jacobs Foundation Young Researcher Grant awarded to the first and second author. In addition, parts of the study were supported by a grant from EBİLTEM, Ege University, to the first author.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Psychology Department, Ege University, Izmir, Bornova, Turkey

    Aysun Doğan

  2. School of Medical Engineering and Applied Social Sciences, University of Applied Sciences Upper Austria, Linz, Austria

    Dagmar Strohmeier

Authors
  1. Aysun Doğan
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Dagmar Strohmeier
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Aysun Doğan .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. Center of Social and Cultural Pyschology, University of Leuven, Leuven, Belgium

    Derya Güngör

  2. School of Medical Engineeringand Applied Social Sciences, University of Applied Sciences, Upper Austria, Linz, Austria

    Dagmar Strohmeier

Appendix

Appendix

  • Global Discrimination

    1. 1.

      During the last 6 months, how often has anybody insulted or hurt you because you are Turkish?

    2. 2.

      During the last 6 months, how often has anybody insulted or hurt you because of your language or accent?

    3. 3.

      During the last 6 months, how often has anybody insulted or hurt you because of your religion?

    4. 4.

      During the last 6 months, how often has anybody insulted or hurt you because you are an immigrant?

  • Discrimination by Teachers

  • When answering the following questions please think about your current school and incidents that happened during this school year.

    1. 1.

      How often has a teacher treated you in an unfriendly or distant way because you are Turkish or Muslim?

    2. 2.

      How often has a teacher liked you less than one your classmates because you are Turkish or Muslim?

    3. 3.

      How often has a teacher expected lower school performance from you compared to your classmates because you are Turkish or Muslim?

    4. 4.

      How often has a teacher graded you unfairly because you are Turkish or Muslim?

    5. 5.

      How often has a teacher treated you unfairly because you are Turkish or Muslim?

  • Discrimination by Peers

    1. 1.

      How often have your classmates treated you in an unfriendly or distant way because you are Turkish or Muslim?

    2. 2.

      How often have your classmates excluded you because you are Turkish or Muslim?

    3. 3.

      How often have your classmates teased or insulted you because you are Turkish or Muslim?

    4. 4.

      How often have your classmates treated you badly because you are Turkish or Muslim?

  • Discrimination in Public Places

  • When answering the following questions please think about public places outside school, e.g. parks, streets, cinemas, bus stops, neighbourhoods, hospitals, etc. or similar.

    1. 1.

      How often has somebody on the street or in a park treated you in an unfriendly or distant way because you are Turkish or Muslim?

    2. 2.

      How often has somebody on the street or in a park teased or insulted you because you are Turkish or Muslim?

    3. 3.

      How often somebody on the street or in a park treated you badly because you are Turkish or Muslim?

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2020 Springer Nature Switzerland AG

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Doğan, A., Strohmeier, D. (2020). The Role of Discrimination, Acculturation, and Ethnic Identity in Predicting Psychosocial Functioning of Turkish Immigrant Youth. In: Güngör, D., Strohmeier, D. (eds) Contextualizing Immigrant and Refugee Resilience. Advances in Immigrant Family Research. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-42303-2_6

Download citation

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation