Abstract
In John Bull’s Other Island, stereotypes of Irish and English figures from the early twentieth century are intermingled with glimpses of the reality of Irish life. Bernard Shaw’s relationship with Ireland and his espousal of Fabian socialism come together in a play that essentially investigates the problematic notion of authenticity in the context of an economically undefined Ireland. Shaw’s text critically challenges deeply rooted and individualistic attachments to the land. Through a postcolonial approach that takes into consideration the active nature of theatre, this chapter investigates how Shaw uses stereotypes to promote an economic agenda as fundamental for Irish identity, irrespective of notions of authenticity. The chapter discusses the effects of those relationships on the type of society and political entity Shaw envisions for Ireland at the time of the play’s publication and production.
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Notes
- 1.
Lonergan specifically notes this with regard to how Irish theatre is interpreted by the communities that translate it: “The inherent otherness of much Irish drama allows other cultures to answer their own questions creatively, without having to merge or mix with Irish culture itself.” See Patrick Lonergan. “‘The Laughter Will Come of Itself. The Tears Are Inevitable’: Martin McDonagh, Globalization, and Irish Theatre Criticism.” Modern Drama, 47.4 (Winter 2004), p. 647.
- 2.
Critics who have explored the importance of a postcolonial perspective in the realm of Theatre Studies are Victor Merriman (2009), Mark Fortier (2002), Jane Dunnett (2006), and Dawn Duncan (2004). Of these, Merriman and Duncan examine the particularly contentious issue of postcolonialism and Ireland.
- 3.
In particular, critics and theoreticians such as Mark Fortier (2002), Frantz Fanon (2004), Dwight Conquergood (1992), Feroza Jussawalla and Reed Way Dasenbrock (1992), and Janelle Reinelt (1992) discuss the need for a greater presence on the part of the colonised or formerly colonised person’s perspective in order to avoid careless or reckless appropriation by the coloniser. Fortier, for example, cites the example of Aimé Césaire’s Une Tempête as an example of a postcolonial reappropriation of Shakespeare’s The Tempest.
- 4.
iv Shaw remarks that, “one of the advantages that I have as a student of history from having been born in Ireland is that I was literally born in the XVII century […] If you go from here to Ireland you get back into the XVII and XVIII century atmosphere.” (Bernard Shaw. “Socialism and Ireland.” In The Matter with Ireland. Ed. Dan H. Laurence and David H. Greene. 2nd ed. Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 2001. 236).
- 5.
J.H. Whyte. “The Age of Daniel O’Connell (1800–47).” In The Course of Irish History. Ed. T.W. Moody and F.X. Martin. Cork: Roberts Rinehart Publishers, 1964. 248–249.
- 6.
For detailed accounts of why Ireland is perceived differently than other British colonial possessions, see Joe Cleary. Outrageous Fortune, capital and culture in modern Ireland. Dublin: Field Day Publications, 2007; “Misplaced ideas? Locating and Dislocating Ireland in Colonial and Postcolonial Studies.” In Marxism, Modernity and Postcolonial Studies. Ed. Crystal Bartolovich and Neil Lazarus. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002. 101–124.
- 7.
Ania Loomba. Colonialism/Postcolonialism. New York: Routledge, 1998. 6.
- 8.
Victor Merriman. “Bernard Shaw in Contemporary Irish Studies: ‘Passé and Contemptible’?” SHAW: The Annual of Bernard Shaw Studies 30 (2010). 217.
- 9.
Shaw addresses this question in two letters, the first being part of a series of articles written in November of 1917 titled “How to Settle the Irish Question” and his lecture to the Fabian society on 28 November 1919 titled “Socialism and Ireland.” Whilst written for exceptionally different audiences, both letters focus on Ireland’s relationship to the land, capital, and nationhood.
- 10.
Loomba, Colonialism/Postcolonialism, 2.
- 11.
F.J. Byrne provides a brief summary of just how complex this system was, as it allowed for different relationship schemes on the male side of families, encompassing up to five generations, in his chapter “Early Irish Society (1st-9th Century).” In The Course of Irish History. Ed. T.W. Moody and F.X. Martin. Cork: Roberts Rinehart Publishers, 1964.43–60.
- 12.
Aidan Clarke. “The Colonisation of Ulster and the Rebellion of 1641.” In The Course of Irish History. Ed. T.W. Moody and F.X. Martin. Cork: Roberts Rinehart Publishers, 1964.203.
- 13.
R.B. McDowell. “The Protestant Nation (1775–1800).” In The Course of Irish History. Ed. T.W. Moody and F.X. Martin. Cork: Roberts Rinehart Publishers, 1964. 234.
- 14.
J.H. Whyte, “The Age of Daniel O’Connell (1800–47),” 255.
- 15.
Donal McCartney. “From Parnell to Pearse (1891–1921).” In The Course of Irish History. Ed. T.W. Moody and F.X. Martin. Cork: Roberts Rinehart Publishers, 1964. 280–281.
- 16.
McCartney, “From Parnell to Pearse (1891–1921),” 289.
- 17.
Brad Kent, “Shaw’s Everyday Emergency: Commodification in and of John Bull’s Other Island,” SHAW: The Annual of Bernard Shaw Studies 26 (2006): 168.
- 18.
McCartney, “From Parnell to Pearse (1891–1921),” 289.
- 19.
More arrests would follow, with the majority of these not facing formal charges or court-martial. McCartney, “From Parnell to Pearse (1891–1921),” 307–310.
- 20.
Dan H. Lawrence and David H. Greene. “Introduction.” In The Matter with Ireland. Ed. Dan H. Laurence and David H. Greene. 2nd ed. Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 2001. xviii.
- 21.
Shaun Richards discusses this idea with regard to the debate about the use of realism in Irish theatre. Setting aside the debate pitting realism against symbolism, we can still see the role that politically active, consciousness raising theatre played in the development of a national theatre in Ireland. Shaun Richards, “‘We were very young and we shrank from nothing’: Realism and Early Twentieth-Century Irish Drama.” In The Oxford Handbook of Modern Irish Theatre. Ed. Nicholas Grene and Chris Morash. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2016. 105–120.
- 22.
Shaun Richards, “‘We were very young and we shrank from nothing’: Realism and Early Twentieth-Century Irish Drama,” 107.
- 23.
Loomba, Colonialism/Postcolonialism, 2.
- 24.
Joe Cleary, “Misplaced ideas? Locating and Dislocating Ireland in Colonial and Postcolonial Studies,” 121.
- 25.
Other leading proponents of the Marxist-materialist branch of Postcolonial Studies include Neil Lazarus (2002), Benita Parry (2002), and Crystal Bartolovich (2002).
- 26.
Loomba, Colonialism/Postcolonialism, 7.
- 27.
Stuart Hall. “Cultural Identity and Diaspora.” In Identity: Community, Culture, Difference. Ed. Jonathan Rutherford. London: Lawrence and Wishart, 1990.225.
- 28.
Shaw’s notion of what constitutes Irishness and Irish identity is of course quite nuanced. His appeal to the Irish climate as indicative of this identity is much less rigid than the geographical notions upheld by other Gaelic Revivalists. Appeals to climate, in Shaw’s typically artful fashion, evoke an attitude or a sensibility that is more inclusive than views such as that of W.B. Yeats, which obliged an author to explicitly territorialise a play in Ireland in order to benefit from the designation of “Irish.”
- 29.
Homi K. Bhabha. The Location of Culture. New York: Routledge Classics, 1994. 94.
- 30.
Shaw places the blame for this on the Irish, too—immediately prior, he writes, “Of all the tricks which the Irish nation have played on the slow-witted Saxon, the most outrageous is the palming off on him of the imaginary Irishman of romance” (Shaw, “Dear Harp of my Country!” 29–30).
- 31.
The strategic essentialism spoken of by Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak (amongst others) risks becoming implacable, as the reaction and perception of the coloniser cannot be predicted or controlled thereafter, endangering the neo- or postcolonial society’s opportunities to not only differentiate themselves in terms of cultural identity, but also in terms of economic systems.
- 32.
Victor Merriman, “Bernard Shaw in Contemporary Irish Studies: ‘Passé and Contemptible’?” 218.
- 33.
Loomba, Colonialism/Postcolonialism, 3.
- 34.
Brad Kent acknowledges this: “Shaw himself gets sublimated into the process of postcoloniality despite his challenge to the more facile and readily commodifiable images of Irishness presented by many other dramatists. But what Root describes as the ‘commodification of the proper name,’ the branding of artists, cultures, and places, suggests that the play was increasingly commodifiable as soon as Irishness became attached to it and, even more subtly, as soon as it was known that Shaw was its author. That this process occurs despite the play’s themes and the ways in which they are treated creates a dilemma for a Fabian Socialist such as Shaw.” Brad Kent. “Shaw’s Everyday Emergency: Commodification in and of John Bull’s Other Island,” 163.
- 35.
Martin Meisel. “Irish Romance.” In Shaw and the Nineteenth Century Theatre. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1991.487.
- 36.
Brad Kent goes on to note that, in spite of their newly acquired land and supposed control over their affairs, they “allow themselves to be bamboozled by the soft-nationalist rhetoric of Broadbent. Failing to realize that Broadbent’s liberalism allows for multinational corporations and transnational capital to move freely across borders, they are in the process of having their recently won freedom taken away.” Brad Kent. “Missing Links, Bernard Shaw and the Discussion Play.” In The Oxford Handbook of Modern Irish Theatre. Ed. Nicholas Grene and Chris Morash. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2016. 142.
- 37.
Shaw’s review of Boucicault’s play appeared in The Saturday Review on 1 February 1896. These reviews are compiled in Our Theatre in the Nineties, which appears in three volumes.
- 38.
Shaw, “Dear Harp of My Country!” 28.
- 39.
In this same article, Shaw goes on to write, “Fortunately, the same talent that enabled Ireland to lead the way in inventing and dramatizing national types now keeps her to the front in the more salutary work of picking them to pieces, a process which appeals to her barbarous humor on the one hand, and on the other to her keen common sense and intelligent appreciation of reality.” Shaw, “Dear Harp of My Country!” 30.
- 40.
Shaw’s connection to England and his arrangement with Vedrenne-Barker to have the play premiered at the Royal Court Theatre suggest that Shaw was also well aware of the fact that his audience was truly two-fold, British and Irish alike. Indeed, just after stating that the intended audience is that of Ireland, Shaw goes on to acknowledge the wider scope of his project when he writes “The next thing that happened was the production of the play in London at the Court Theatre by Messrs. Vedrenne and Barker, and its immediate and enormous popularity with delighted and flattered English audiences.” After allowing for differences in reactions to the play, he writes: “English audiences very naturally swallowed it eagerly and smacked their lips over it, laughing all the more heartily because they felt that they were taking a caricature of themselves with the most tolerant and large-minded goodhumor” (Shaw, “A Preface for Politicians,” 808–809).
- 41.
Kiberd, “John Bull’s Other Islander – Bernard Shaw,” 54.
- 42.
Meisel, “Irish Romance,” 486.
- 43.
Hall, “Cultural Identity and Diaspora,” 222.
- 44.
Brad Kent addresses this very issue in “Missing Links, Bernard Shaw and the Discussion Play” (Oxford University Press, 2016, 138–151), noting that in the case of Shaw, the discussion play evolved from the play of ideas and provoked the need of the spectator to debate and discuss possible resolutions for the play in question, as Shaw rarely provided any clear-cut ones himself.
- 45.
Shaw, The Quintessence of Ibsenism, 212.
- 46.
44 InThe Quintessence of Ibsenism, Shaw describes initial critical reception of this genre in the following terms: “They [the critics] declare that discussions are not dramatic, and that art should not be didactic (Shaw, The Quintessence of Ibsenism, 210).
- 47.
Brad Kent. “The Politics of Shaw’s Irish Women in John Bull’s Other Island.” In Shaw and Feminisms On Stage and Off. Ed. D.A. Hadfield and Jean Reynolds. Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 2013. 74.
- 48.
Shaw, The Quintessence of Ibsenism, 212.
- 49.
Shaw, The Quintessence of Ibsenism, 214.
- 50.
Bernard Shaw. John Bull’s Other Island. In The Bodley Head Bernard Shaw Collected Plays with Their Prefaces. Ed. Dan H. Laurence. London: The Bodley Head Ltd., 1971. 1017.
- 51.
Kathleen Ochshorn. “Colonialism, Postcolonialism, And the Shadow of a New Empire: John Bull’s Other Island.” SHAW: The Annual of Bernard Shaw Studies 26 (2006):191.
- 52.
Shaw, John Bull’s Other Island, 905.
- 53.
Shaw, “Dear Harp of My Country!” 32.
- 54.
Shaw, John Bull’s Other Island, 1005.
- 55.
Shaw, John Bull’s Other Island, 928.
- 56.
Kathleen Ochshorn, “Colonialism, Postcolonialism, And the Shadow of a New Empire: John Bull’s Other Island,” 192.
- 57.
There is, of course, evidence to support the fact that Nora is a much more complex character here, especially given the fact that she is faced with a rather certain future (marriage ), but one in which she might be able to exercise power. As with much of Shaw’s work, the ambiguity here leaves the audience with little means of pigeon-holing characters in stereotypical roles. For a more detailed, nuanced discussion of Nora’s roll in John Bull’s Other Island. See Brad Kent. “The Politics of Shaw’s Irish Women in John Bull’s Other Island.” In Shaw and Feminisms On Stage and Off. Ed. D.A. Hadfield and Jean Reynolds. Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 2013.
- 58.
Kent, “The Politics of Shaw’s Irish Women in John Bull’s Other Island,” 80.
- 59.
Kiberd, “John Bull’s Other Islander – Bernard Shaw,” 54.
- 60.
Ochshorn , “Colonialism, Postcolonialism, And the Shadow of a New Empire: John Bull’s Other Island,” 184.
- 61.
Bertolt Brecht. “Three Cheers for Shaw.” In Brecht on Theatre, The Development of an Aesthetic. Ed. John Willett. London: Methuen & Co ltd, 1964.11.
- 62.
Ochshorn cites Tracy C. Davis’s assessment that Shaw never truly makes it to the postcolonial stage. Kathleen Ochshorn, “Colonialism, Postcolonialism, and the Shadow of a New Empire: John Bull’s Other Island,” 181.
- 63.
McCartney, “From Parnell to Pearse (1891–1921),” 295.
- 64.
Ochshorn , “Colonialism, Postcolonialism, And the Shadow of a New Empire: John Bull’s Other Island,” 192.
- 65.
Shaw, “Socialism and Ireland,” 238.
- 66.
Jean-Paul Sartre. Un théâtre de Situations. Paris: Gallimard, 1973. 31.
- 67.
Shaw, “Fragments of a Fabian Lecture 1890,” 94.
- 68.
Peter Gahan. “Colonial Locations of Contested Space and John Bull’s Other Island.” Shaw: The Annual of Bernard Shaw Studies 26 (2006): 197.
- 69.
Shaw, “Preface to the Home Rule Edition of 1912,” 883.
- 70.
Shaw’s article appearing in The Star posits an even more sinister, ominous take on the real effects of bourgeois charity, essentially arguing that those charitable efforts themselves are tainted and largely one-sided: “Charity is only a poisoned dressing on a malignant sore. If we are callous enough and silly enough to let that easily preventable sore occur, the only remedy is the knife; and if it is too long delayed, the knife may take a triangular shape and slide in a tall wooden frame over-hanging a Procrustean bed. Starved children always revenge themselves one way or another.” Shaw, “The Children of the Dublin Slums,” 182.
- 71.
Loomba, Colonialism/Postcolonialism, 12.
- 72.
Shaw, “Preface for Politicians,” 808.
- 73.
Peter Gahan, “Colonial Locations of Contested Space and John Bull’s Other Island,” 209.
- 74.
Shaw’s disappointment registers in the explanatory note added to his 1930 reprinted “Preface to the Home Rule Edition of 1912”: “Readers who skip to that [the 1906 “Preface for Politicians”] preface will lose nothing by missing this one except a possibly instructive example of how our eternal march into the future must always be a blindfold march. I guessed ahead, and guessed wrongly, whilst stupider and more ignorant fellow-pilgrims guessed rightly.” Shaw “Preface to the Home Rule Edition of 1912,” 874.
- 75.
Frantz Fanon. The Wretched of the Earth. London: Paladin, 1963. 170.
- 76.
Shaw, “Dear Harp of My Country!” 31.
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Ruane, A.R. (2020). The Economics of Identity: John Bull’s Other Island and the Creation of Modern Ireland. In: McNamara, A., O’Ceallaigh Ritschel, N. (eds) Bernard Shaw and the Making of Modern Ireland. Bernard Shaw and His Contemporaries. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-42113-7_7
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