Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Enlightenment and Freedom in a Confucian Way

萬物一體 (wanwu yiti) – A Philosophical Concept and Its Educational Relevance

  • Chapter
  • First Online:
Confucian Perspectives on Learning and Self-Transformation

Part of the book series: Contemporary Philosophies and Theories in Education ((COPT,volume 14))

  • 413 Accesses

Abstract

Niklaus Schefer is looking at the ideas of freedom and Enlightenment in a Confucian Way, and interprets these philosophical concepts and their educational relevance. Enlightenment and freedom are central terms in our history of ideas. They define the self-concept of modern liberal and democratic societies. In the project of modernity inheres an education towards maturity that is committed to Enlightenment. With that form of education all civilians are regarded as autonomous and reasonable subjects who can act free and equal within the boundaries of a democratic constitutional state. Schefer’s aim is to expand our horizon by bringing in new aspects of the terms of enlightenment and freedom, stemming from Chinese philosophy and pedagogics. He exemplarily chooses the term 萬物一體 (wanwu yiti), meaning literally ‘ten thousand things (are) one substance/body’. After looking on the conceptual history of this phrase that is used in all relevant traditions of Chinese philosophy, he continues to illustrate the secret correlation between the phrase and the concepts of freedom and enlightenment. His analysis tries to demonstrate that the two crucial concepts have a quite different focus and context in the Chinese culture, providing us with a way of complementing our educational attitudes that are linked with the two terms; for example, it can help us living more sustainably by encouraging meditative mindfulness, which can be in turn an alternative source for the western educational concept of personal development and self-transformation in the contemporary school.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 119.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 159.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD 159.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

Notes

  1. 1.

    cf. Das Schweizer Gymnasium – Köpfe. Ziele. Positionen, pp. 20–36.

  2. 2.

    See for example: Th. Adorno/M. Horkheimer: Dialectic of Enlightenment (1944) or E. Erdmann: Ethos der Moderne. Foucaults Kritik der Aufklärung (1990).

  3. 3.

    I use the same method as the French philosopher and sinologist François Jullien who tries to elucidate Western paradigms with the comparison to Chinese thinking (see e.g. F. Jullien in: Dirk Baecker/François Jullien: Kontroverse über China, pp. 7–29 or F. Jullien (2005), pp. 9–12). I admit that one could come to similar conclusions with the study of European thinkers as e.g. Spinoza, Bruno, Eckhart, Nicholas of Cusa as well.

  4. 4.

    According to certain translations I use “substance” for ti 體. I am aware that this term is not really fitting. “body” is also an important meaning of the Chinese term. The German term “Wesen” as a synthesis of “Lebewesen” (animal) and substance would be more accurate.

  5. 5.

    For an overview of the conceptual history, see e.g. Lutz Geldsetzer/Hong Han-ding, 1998, pp. 63–71 and K. Shimada, 1987, pp. 49–51, pp. 142–145 and 168–171.

  6. 6.

    cf. Zhuangzi (2008) p. 58; W.-t. Chan: Source Book (1973), p. 186.

  7. 7.

    cf. W.-t. Chan (1973), p. 79 with his translation: “All things are already complete in oneself.”

  8. 8.

    cf. Seng Zhao, Zhaolun 涅槃無名論第四 (0159b20); see also W.-t. Chan (1973), pp. 343–356.

  9. 9.

    cf. K. Shimada (1987), pp. 48–51.

  10. 10.

    The underlined passages are the crucial terms you can read in the Chinese original text and in the English translation.

  11. 11.

    Wang Yangming, chuanxilu ch. 142; cf. W.-t. Chan (1973), pp. 120–121. For more information, see I. Kern (2010), pp. 208–224.

  12. 12.

    cf. P. Grimberg (2014).

  13. 13.

    cf. Iso Kern (1992), pp. 188–193.

  14. 14.

    cf. Dai Zhen: Mengzi ziyi shuzheng, ch. 14; Tai Chen (1990), p. 93: see 【陸子靜云: 「收拾精神, 自作主宰, 萬物皆備於我, 何有欠闕!當惻隱時, 自然惻隱; 當羞惡時, 自然羞惡; 當寬裕溫柔時, 自然寬裕溫柔; 當發強剛毅時, 自然發剛強毅。」王文成云:「聖人致知之功, 至誠無息。其良知之體, 皦如明鏡, 妍媸之來, 隨物現形, 而明鏡曾無所留染, 所謂『情順萬事而無情』也。『無所住(以)〔而〕生其心』, 佛氏曾有是言, 未為非也。明鏡之應, 妍者妍, 媸者媸, 一照而皆真, 即是『生其心』處; 妍者妍, 媸者媸, 一過而不留, 即『無所住』處。」】.

  15. 15.

    See for example I. Kant: Groundwork of the Metaphysic of Morals (1785) or Critique of Practical Reason (1788).

  16. 16.

    cf. G.F.W. Hegel, Vorlesungen über die Philosophie der Geschichte, see also J. Spence: Chinas Weg in die Moderne (2008), pp. 172–173.

  17. 17.

    I am aware, that this distinction is too simple and sweeping. If you look closely to Western concepts of freedom, you realize that autonomy is not only freewill but also means duty and responsibility. I also omit essential contributions of the existentialistic philosophy on freedom.

  18. 18.

    See for example I. Kant: Critique of Pure Reason (1781) B 427, I. Berlin: Four Essays on Liberty (1969) or Ch. Taylor: What is wrong with negative liberty? (in: Philosophical Papers 2, 1985).

  19. 19.

    This ascription (the Western tradition focuses on positive freedom, the Eastern on negative) is not precise and far too simple. On a closer look, the Western discussion always embraces a personal entity in both meanings of freedom. But the possibility that negative freedom could also mean the overcoming of being a subject seems not familiar to the Western tradition.

  20. 20.

    See “The Record of Linji”, translated by Ruth Fuller Sasaki, p. 13 and Linji (1996), pp. 67–68; cf. http://info.stiltij.nl/publiek/meditatie/leraren/_historisch/linji-sasaki.pdf. For more information, see W. Bauer (1989), pp. 239–247 and H. Dumoulin (1985), pp. 190–216.

  21. 21.

    Wang Yangming, Chuanxilu ch. 182; Instruction of Practical Living, p. 170.

  22. 22.

    I. Kant (in Critique of Pure Reason) defines the process of epistemic enlightenment above all in the analytic differentiation between thing in itself and phenomenon (we cannot grasp the metaphysical notion of the thing in itself, but are limited to the empiric perception of the phenomenon). In contrast to this technique of enlightenment the term wanwu yiti is rather synthetic and describes in a different way the necessary conditions of knowledge.

  23. 23.

    Cheng Hao, yishu 2A:2a-b; see W.-t. Chan (1973), p. 530.

  24. 24.

    Wang Yangming: Inquiry on the Great Learning, in: W.-t. Chan: Source book in Chinese Philosophy, p. 660.

  25. 25.

    All terms are quoted from the classic text Da Xue. Da Xue was originally the 42nd chapter of the Liji 禮記 (Book of Rites), one of the five classic works of Confucianism. The title Da Xue means: Education (Learning) for the adult and contains moral education and introduction into social order. Only since the eleventh century, the work got importance and was standard subject of the civil service exams.

  26. 26.

    cf. Wolfgang Ommerborn, Der Neokonfuzianismus im Kontext der Geschichte des Konfuzianismus, in: Jinsilu – Aufzeichnungen des Nachdenkens über Naheliegendes (2008), pp. 258–260 and pp. 267–268.; François Billeter: Contre François Jullien, p. 19 and pp. 26–27.

  27. 27.

    I admit that such thoughts are not totally new and original. Philosophers like Jean-Luc Nancy tried to expand the western understanding of enlightenment and freedom. See ‚singulär plural sein‘ (Diaphanes 2004) or ‚Das gemeinsame Erscheinen. Von der Existenz des ‘Kommunismus’ zur Gemeinschaftlichkeit der ‘Existenz’, edited by Joseph Vogl: Gemeinschaften (Suhrkamp 1994).

  28. 28.

    cf. R. Fuller Sasaki (2008), pp. 5–6, Linjilu 二十七, 二十八。

  29. 29.

    cf. K. Shimada (1987), p. 157.

  30. 30.

    Wang Yangming, Instructions for Practical Living, p. 224.

  31. 31.

    See e.g. Marianne Beuchert: Die Gärten Chinas, pp. 237–250.

  32. 32.

    see also the comments of the German philosopher Wolfgang Welsch in: Blickwechsel – Neue Wege der Ästhetik (2012), pp. 158–169.

References

  • Baecker, D., Jullien, F., et al. (2008). Kontroverse über China. Berlin: Merve.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bauer, W. (1989). China und die Hoffnung auf Glück. München: dtv.

    Google Scholar 

  • Beuchert, M. (1998). Die Gärten Chinas. Frankfurt a.M: Insel.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bieri, P. (2001). Das Handwerk der Freiheit. München: Hanser.

    Google Scholar 

  • Billeter, F. (2007). Contre François Jullien. Paris: Allia.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chan, W.-t. (1973). A source book in Chinese philosophy. Princeton: Princeton University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Das Schweizer Gymnasium – Köpfe. Ziele. Positionen, Chronos, Zürich 2013.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dumoulin, H. (1985). Geschichte des Zen-Buddhismus, Band I: Indien und China. Bern: Francke Verlag.

    Google Scholar 

  • Erdmann, E. (1990). Ethos der Moderne. Foucaults Kritik der Aufklärung. Campus: Frankfurt a.M.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fuller Sasaki, R. (Trans.). (2008) The record of Linji. Honolulu: University of Hawai’I Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Geldsetzer, L., & Hong, H.-d. (1998). Grundlagen der chinesischen Philosophie. Stuttgart: Reclam.

    Google Scholar 

  • Grimberg, P. (2014). Dem Feuer geweiht: Das Lishi Fenshu des Li Zhi. Marburg: Tectum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jullien, F. (2005). Das grosse Bild hat keine Form. München: Fink.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kern, I. (1992). Buddhistische Kritik am Christentum im China des 17. Jahrhunderts. Bern: Peter Lang Verlag.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kern, I. (2010). Das Wichtigste im Leben – Wang Yangming und seine Nachfolger. Basel: Schwabe.

    Google Scholar 

  • Linji. (1996). Das Denken ist ein wilder Affe (Das Linji Lu). Bern: O.W. Barth-Verlag.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ommerborn, W. (Hrsg.). (2008). Jinsilu – Aufzeichnungen des Nachdenkens über Naheliegendes. Frankfurt a.M: Verlag der Weltreligionen.

    Google Scholar 

  • Shimada, K. (1987). Die neo-konfuzianische Philosophie. Berlin: Verlag von Dietrich Reimer.

    Google Scholar 

  • Spence, J. (2008). Chinas Weg in die Moderne. München: Hanser.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tai Chen. (1990). On Mencius – Explorations in words and meaning. New Haven: Yale University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wang Yangming. (1963). Instructions for practical living. New York: Columbia University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Welsch, W. (2012). Blickwechsel. Stuttgart: Reclam.

    Google Scholar 

  • Zhuangzi. (2008). Das Buch der Spontaneität. Aitrang: Windpferd.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Gymnasium Thun, Thun, Switzerland

    Niklaus Schefer

Authors
  1. Niklaus Schefer
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Niklaus Schefer .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. Institute of Education, University of Zurich, Zürich, Switzerland

    Roland Reichenbach

  2. Department of Education, Seoul National University, Seoul, Korea (Republic of)

    Duck-Joo Kwak

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2020 Springer Nature Switzerland AG

About this chapter

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this chapter

Schefer, N. (2020). Enlightenment and Freedom in a Confucian Way. In: Reichenbach, R., Kwak, DJ. (eds) Confucian Perspectives on Learning and Self-Transformation. Contemporary Philosophies and Theories in Education, vol 14. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-40078-1_6

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-40078-1_6

  • Published:

  • Publisher Name: Springer, Cham

  • Print ISBN: 978-3-030-40077-4

  • Online ISBN: 978-3-030-40078-1

  • eBook Packages: EducationEducation (R0)

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation