Abstract
The last two decades have witnessed a tremendous amount of social and policy changes pertaining to same-sex relationships. However, it is important to recognise that the vast majority of countries across the globe do not legally recognise same-sex couples, and same-sex relationships continue to be stigmatised, even in countries that provide equal relationship recognition. This chapter provides a review and integration of recent theoretical and empirical contributions from the author and his colleagues (Frost and Fingerhut, Group Proc Intergroup Relat 19:477–492, 2016; Frost and LeBlanc, Stress in the lives of same-sex couples, Oxford University Press, 2018; Hammack et al., J Sex Res 56:556–592, 2019; LeBlanc et al., J Marriage Fam 80:397–408, 2018; LeBlanc et al., J Marriage Fam 77:40–59, 2015) with the aim of highlighting the psychological and social factors that contribute to the well-being of same-sex couples in rapidly changing social and policy contexts. Particular attention will be paid to the impact of devaluing social discourses, new theories of the couple-level experience of minority stress, and resilience resources that can potentially explain how many same-sex couples thrive in the face of stigma and social inequality.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Adam, B. (2006). Relationship innovation in male couples. Sexualities, 9(1), 5–26.
Ayoub, P. M., & Garretson, J. (2017). Getting the message out: Media context and global changes in attitudes toward homosexuality. Comparative Political Studies, 50(8), 1055–1085.
Baiocco, R., Argalia, M., & Laghi, F. (2014). The desire to marry and attitudes toward same-sex family legalization in a sample of Italian lesbians and gay men. Journal of Family Issues, 35(2), 181–200.
Balsam, K. F., Beauchaine, T. P., Rothblum, E. D., & Solomon, S. E. (2008). Three-year follow-up of same-sex couples who had civil unions in Vermont, same-sex couples not in civil unions, and heterosexual married couples. Developmental Psychology, 44(1), 102–116.
Beals, K. P., Impett, E. A., & Peplau, L. A. (2002). Lesbians in love: Why some relationships endure and others end. Journal of Lesbian Studies, 6(1), 53–63.
Blumstein, P., & Schwartz, P. (1983). American couples. New York: Morrow.
Bodenmann, G., Charvoz, L., Bradbury, T. N., Bertoni, A., Iafrate, R., Giuliani, C., … Behling, J. (2007). The role of stress in divorce: A three-nation retrospective study. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 24(5), 707–728.
Bodenmann, G., Meuwly, N., & Kayser, K. (2011). Two conceptualizations of dyadic coping and their potential for predicting relationship quality and individual well-being: A comparison. European Psychologist, 16, 255–266.
Bodenmann, G., Pihet, S., & Kayser, K. (2006). The relationship between dyadic coping and marital quality: A 2-year longitudinal study. Journal of Family Psychology, 20, 485–493.
Bolger, N., DeLongis, A., Kessler, R. C., & Wethington, E. (1989). The contagion of stress across multiple roles. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 51, 175–183.
Booth, A., & Amato, P. (1991). Divorce and psychological stress. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 32(4), 396–407.
Brooks, V. R. (1981). Minority stress and lesbian women. Lexington, MA: Lexington Books.
Crocker, J., & Major, B. (1989). Social stigma and self-esteem: The self-protective properties of stigma. Psychological Review, 96(4), 608.
D’Augelli, A. R., Rendina, H. J., Sinclair, K. O., & Grossman, A. H. (2007). Lesbian and gay youth’s aspirations for marriage and raising children. Journal of LGBT Issues in Counseling, 1(4), 77–98.
Dane, S., Short, L., & Healy, G. (2016). Swimming with sharks: The negative social and psychological impacts of Ireland’s marriage equality ‘NO’ campaign. Retrieved April 8, 2019, from https://espace.library.uq.edu.au/view/UQ:408120
Degges-White, S., & Marszalek, J. (2007). An exploration of long-term, same-sex relationships: Benchmarks, perceptions, and challenges. Journal of LGBT Issues in Counseling, 1(4), 99–119.
Diamond, L. (2006). The intimate same-sex relationships of sexual minorities. In D. Perlman & A. Vangelisti (Eds.), The Cambridge handbook of personal relationships (pp. 293–312). New York: Cambridge University Press.
Diamond, L. M. (2017). Three critical questions for future research on lesbian relationships. Journal of Lesbian Studies, 21(1), 106–119.
Doyle, D. M., & Molix, L. (2015). Social stigma and sexual minorities’ romantic relationship functioning: A meta-analytic review. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 41(10), 1363–1381.
Fetner, T. (2016). US attitudes toward lesbian and gay people are better than ever. Contexts, 15(2), 20–27.
Flores, A. R., Hatzenbuehler, M. L., & Gates, G. J. (2018). Identifying psychological responses of stigmatized groups to referendums. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 115(15), 3816–3821.
Frable, D. E., Platt, L., & Hoey, S. (1998). Concealable stigmas and positive self-perceptions: Feeling better around similar others. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 74(4), 909.
Frost, D. M. (2011a). Social stigma and its consequences for the socially stigmatized. Social and Personality Psychology Compass, 5(11), 824–839.
Frost, D. M. (2011b). Stigma and intimacy in same-sex relationships: A narrative approach. Journal of Family Psychology, 25(1), 1–10.
Frost, D. M. (2014). Redemptive framings of minority stress: Implications for closeness in same-sex relationships. Journal of Couple & Relationship Therapy, 13, 219–239.
Frost, D. M., & Eliason, M. J. (2014). Challenging the assumption of fusion in female same-sex relationships. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 38(1), 65–74.
Frost, D. M., & Fingerhut, A. W. (2016). Daily exposure to negative campaign messages decreases same-sex couples’ psychological and relational well-being. Group Processes & Intergroup Relations, 19, 477–492.
Frost, D. M., & Gola, K. A. (2015). Meanings of intimacy: A comparison of members of heterosexual and same-sex couples. Analyses of Social Issues and Public Policy, 15(1), 382–400.
Frost, D. M., & LeBlanc, A. J. (2014). Non-event stress contributes to mental health disparities based on sexual orientation: Evidence from a personal projects analysis. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 84, 557–566.
Frost, D. M., & LeBlanc, A. J. (2018). Stress in the lives of same-sex couples. In A. E. Goldberg & A. P. Romero (Eds.), LGBTQ divorce and relationship dissolution: Psychological and legal perspectives and implications for practice (pp. 70–86). Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Frost, D. M., LeBlanc, A. J., de Vries, B., Alston-Stepnitz, E., Stephenson, R., & Woodyatt, C. (2017). Couple-level minority stress: An examination of same-sex couples’ unique experiences. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 58, 455–472.
Frost, D. M., & Meyer, I. H. (2009). Internalized homophobia and relationship quality among lesbians, gay men, and bisexuals. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 56, 97–109.
Frost, D. M., & Meyer, I. H. (2012). Measuring community connectedness among diverse sexual minority populations. Journal of Sex Research, 48(1), 36–49.
Frost, D. M., Meyer, I. H., & Schwartz, S. (2016). Social support networks among diverse sexual minority populations. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 86(1), 91.
Goldberg, A. E. (2014). Will I marry if my parents can’t? Young adults with LGB parents consider marriage for themselves. Journal of Family Issues, 35(2), 151–180.
Gottman, J. M., Levenson, R. W., Swanson, C., Swanson, K., Tyson, R., & Yoshimoto, D. (2003). Observing gay, lesbian and heterosexual couples’ relationships: Mathematical modeling of conflict interaction. Journal of Homosexuality, 45, 65–91.
Green, R. J., & Mitchell, V. (2008). Gay and lesbian couples in therapy: Minority stress, relational ambiguity, and families of choice. In Clinical handbook of couple therapy (Vol. 4, pp. 662–680).
Hammack, P. L., Frost, D. M., & Hughes, S. D. (2019). Queer intimacies: A new paradigm for the study of relationship diversity. Journal of Sex Research, 56(4-5), 556–592. https://doi.org/10.1080/00224499.2018.1531281
Hatzenbuehler, M. L. (2014). Structural stigma and the health of lesbian, gay, and bisexual populations. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 23(2), 127–132.
Hatzenbuehler, M. (2016). Structural stigma: Research evidence and implications for psychological science. American Psychologist, 71(8), 742–751.
Hatzenbuehler, M. L., McLaughlin, K. A., Keyes, K. M., & Hasin, D. S. (2010). The impact of institutional discrimination on psychiatric disorders in lesbian, gay, and bisexual populations: A prospective study. American Journal of Public Health, 100(3), 452–459.
Herdt, G., & Kertzner, R. (2006). I do, but I can’t: The impact of marriage denial on the mental health and sexual citizenship of lesbians and gay men in the United States. Sexuality Research and Social Policy, 3(1), 33–49.
Herek, G. M. (2006). Legal recognition of same-sex relationships in the United States: A social science perspective. American Psychologist, 61(6), 607–621.
Hughes, M. E., & Waite, L. J. (2009). Marital biography and health at mid-life. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 50(3), 344–358.
Kertzner, R. M. (2004). Psychotherapy with lesbian and gay clients from an adult life course perspective. Journal of Gay & Lesbian Social Services, 16(2), 105–111.
Kiecolt-Glaser, J. K., Bane, C., Glaser, R., & Malarkey, W. B. (2003). Love, marriage, and divorce: Newlyweds’ stress hormones foreshadow relationship changes. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 71(1), 176.
King, M., & Bartlett, A. (2006). What same sex civil partnerships may mean for health. Journal of Epidemiology & Community Health, 60(3), 188–191.
King, M., Semlyen, J., Tai, S. S., Killaspy, H., Osborn, D., Popelyuk, D., & Nazareth, I. (2008). A systematic review of mental disorder, suicide, and deliberate self harm in lesbian, gay and bisexual people. BMC Psychiatry, 8(1), 1–17.
Kurdek, L. A. (2004). Are gay and lesbian cohabiting couples really different from heterosexual married couples? Journal of Marriage and Family, 66(4), 880–900.
Kurdek, L. A. (2005). What do we know about gay and lesbian couples?. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 14(5), 251–254.
Kurdek, L. A. (2008). Change in relationship quality for partners from lesbian, gay male, and heterosexual couples. Journal of Family Psychology, 22(5), 701–711.
Lannutti, P. J. (2008). Attractions and obstacles while considering legally recognized same-sex marriage. Journal of GLBT Family Studies, 4(2), 245–264.
LeBlanc, A. J., Frost, D. M., Alston-Stepnitz, E., Bauermeister, J., Stephenson, R., Woodyatt, C. R., & de Vries, B. (2015). Similar others in same-sex couples’ social networks. Journal of Homosexuality, 62(11), 1599–1610.
LeBlanc, A. J., Frost, D. M., & Bowen, K. (2018). Legal marriage, unequal recognition, and mental health among same-sex couples. Journal of Marriage and Family, 80(2), 397–408.
LeBlanc, A. J., Frost, D. M., & Wight, R. G. (2015). Minority stress and stress proliferation among same-sex and other marginalized couples. Journal of Marriage and Family, 77(1), 40–59.
Lewis, R. J., Derlega, V. J., Berndt, A., Morris, L. M., & Rose, S. (2002). An empirical analysis of stressors for gay men and lesbians. Journal of Homosexuality, 42(1), 63–88.
Lewis, R. J., Derlega, V. J., Griffin, J. L., & Krowinski, A. C. (2003). Stressors for gay men and lesbians: Life stress, gay-related stress, stigma consciousness, and depressive symptoms. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 22(6), 716–729.
Lyons, K. S., Zarit, S. H., Sayer, A. G., & Whitlatch, C. J. (2002). Caregiving as a dyadic process: Perspectives from caregiver and receiver. The Journals of Gerontology Series B: Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences, 57(3), 195–204.
Meyer, I. H. (2003). Prejudice, social stress, and mental health in lesbian, gay, and bisexual populations: Conceptual issues and research evidence. Psychological Bulletin, 129, 674–697.
Meyer, I. H. (2014). Minority stress and positive psychology: Convergences and divergences to understanding LGBT health. Psychology of Sexual Orientation and Gender Diversity, 1(4), 348.
Meyer, I. H., & Frost, D. M. (2013). Minority stress and the health of sexual minorities. In C. J. Patterson & A. R. D’Augelli (Eds.), Handbook of psychology and sexual orientation (pp. 252–266). New York: Oxford University Press.
Milkie, M. A. (2010). The stress process model: Some family-level considerations. In W. R. Avison, C. S. Aneshensel, S. Schieman, & B. Wheaton (Eds.), Advances in the conceptualization of the stress process: Essays in honor of Leonard I. Pearlin (pp. 93–108). New York: Springer Science + Business Media.
Moradi, B., Mohr, J. J., Worthington, R. L., & Fassinger, R. E. (2009). Counseling psychology research on sexual (orientation) minority issues: Conceptual and methodological challenges and opportunities. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 56(1), 5.
Obergefell v. Hodges, 576 U.S. ____(slip. op.) (2015).
Ouellette, S. (1998). The value and limitations of stress models in HIV/AIDS. In: B. P. Dohrenwend (Ed.), Adversity, stress, and psychopathology (pp. 142–160). New York: Oxford University Press.
Pearlin, L. I. (1999). The stress process revisited: Reflections on concepts and their interrelationships. In C. S. Aneshensel & J. C. Phelan (Eds.), Handbook on the sociology of mental health (pp. 395–415). New York: Kluwer Academic/Plenum Press.
Pearlin, L. I., Aneshensel, C. S., & LeBlanc, A. J. (1997). The forms and mechanisms of stress proliferation: The case of AIDS caregivers. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 38, 223–236.
Pearlin, L. I., & Bierman, A. (2013). Current issues and future directions in research into the stress process. In C. S. Aneshensel, J. C. Phelan, & A. Bierman (Eds.), Handbook of the sociology of mental health (2nd ed., pp. 325–340). New York: Springer Science + Business Media.
Peplau, L. A., & Fingerhut, A. W. (2006). The close relationships of lesbians and gay men. Annual Review of Psychology, 58, 405–424.
Riggle, E. D., Thomas, J. D., & Rostosky, S. S. (2005). The marriage debate and minority stress. PS: Political Science & Politics, 38(2), 221–224.
Riggle, E. D., Rostosky, S. S., & Horne, S. G. (2010). Psychological distress, well-being, and legal recognition in same-sex couple relationships. Journal of Family Psychology, 24(1), 82–86.
Rostosky, S. S., & Riggle, E. D. (2017a). Same-sex couple relationship strengths: A review and synthesis of the empirical literature (2000–2016). Psychology of Sexual Orientation and Gender Diversity, 4(1), 1–13.
Rostosky, S. S., & Riggle, E. D. (2017b). Same-sex relationships and minority stress. Current Opinion in Psychology, 13, 29–38.
Rostosky, S. S., Riggle, E. D., Rothblum, E. D., & Balsam, K. F. (2016). Same-sex couples’ decisions and experiences of marriage in the context of minority stress: Interviews from a population-based longitudinal study. Journal of Homosexuality, 63(8), 1019–1040.
Rothblum, E. D. (2005). Same-sex marriage and legalized relationships: I do, or do I? Journal of GLBT Family Studies, 1(1), 21–31.
Rubin, J. D., Moors, A. C., Matsick, J. L., Ziegler, A., & Conley, T. D. (2014). On the margins: Considering diversity among consensually non-monogamous relationships. Journal für Psychologie, 22(1).
Russell, G. M., & Richards, J. A. (2003). Stressor and resilience factors for lesbians, gay men, and bisexuals confronting antigay politics. American Journal of Community Psychology, 31(3-4), 313–328.
Umberson, D., Thomeer, M. B., & Williams, K. (2013). Family status and mental health: Recent advances and future directions. In Handbook of the sociology of mental health (pp. 405–431). Springer: Dordrecht.
van Eeden-Moorefield, B., Malloy, K., & Benson, K. (2016). Gay men’s (non) monogamy ideals and lived experience. Sex Roles, 75(1–2), 43–55.
Verrelli, S., White, F. A., Harvey, L. J., & Pulciani, M. R. (2019). Minority stress, social support, and the mental health of lesbian, gay, and bisexual Australians during the Australian Marriage Law Postal Survey. Australian Psychologist, 54(4), 336–346. https://doi.org/10.1111/ap.12380
Weston, K. (1991). Families we choose: Lesbians, gays, kinship. New York: Columbia University Press.
Wight, R. G., Beals, K. P., Miller-Martinez, D., Murphy, D. A., & Aneshensel, C. S. (2007). HIV-related traumatic stress symptoms in AIDS caregiving family dyads. AIDS Care, 19, 901–909.
Wight, R. G., LeBlanc, A. J., De Vries, B., & Detels, R. (2012). Stress and mental health among midlife and older gay-identified men. American Journal of Public Health, 102(3), 503–510.
Wight, R. G., LeBlanc, A. J., & Lee Badgett, M. V. (2013). Same-sex legal marriage and psychological well-being: Findings from the California health interview survey. American Journal of Public Health, 103(2), 339–346.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2020 Springer Nature Switzerland AG
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Frost, D.M. (2020). Stigma, Social Change and the Well-Being of Same-Sex Couples. In: Abela, A., Vella, S., Piscopo, S. (eds) Couple Relationships in a Global Context. European Family Therapy Association Series. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-37712-0_10
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-37712-0_10
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, Cham
Print ISBN: 978-3-030-37711-3
Online ISBN: 978-3-030-37712-0
eBook Packages: Behavioral Science and PsychologyBehavioral Science and Psychology (R0)