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An Introduction to Circadian Endocrine Physiology: Implications for Exercise and Sports Performance

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Endocrinology of Physical Activity and Sport

Part of the book series: Contemporary Endocrinology ((COE))

Abstract

Circadian rhythms have a period of approximately 24 h, persist when constant dim light conditions exist, and are driven by the internal master biological clock, located in the suprachiasmatic nuclei (SCN) of the hypothalamus. While these rhythms are endogenous, they are attuned to external time cues called zeitgebers (time givers), with the daily light/dark cycle being the most important. Peripheral oscillators, present in most organs in the body, have an important role in the general rhythmicity of the organism, and they can be aligned or misaligned with the SCN and the environmental zeitgebers such as light, activity, and feeding. Human physiology (including endocrine, immune, and metabolic functions) and performance exhibit circadian variations. Major misalignment of the internal clock with the external environment, as occurs in jet lag and shift work, can adversely affect physiology and performance. Timed interventions, such as light exposure or avoidance, can help mitigate circadian adversity and improve the quality of exercise training, competing, and recovery.

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Authors and Affiliations

  1. University of Maryland School of Medicine, Department of Psychiatry, Mood and Anxiety Program, Baltimore, MD, USA

    Teodor T. Postolache & Arshpreet Gulati

  2. The Center for Sleep, Mood, Anxiety, and Performance, Washington, DC, USA

    Teodor T. Postolache

  3. St. Elizabeths Hospital, Department of Neurology Consultation Service, Washington, DC, USA

    Arshpreet Gulati

  4. Baylor College of Medicine, Menninger Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Houston, TX, USA

    Olaoluwa O. Okusaga

  5. Neurology Consultation Service, St. Elizabeths Hospital/DC Department of Behavioral Health, Department of Neurology, Washington, DC, USA

    John W. Stiller

Authors
  1. Teodor T. Postolache
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  2. Arshpreet Gulati
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  3. Olaoluwa O. Okusaga
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  4. John W. Stiller
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Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Exercise & Sport Science, Department of Nutrition, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC, USA

    Anthony C. Hackney

  2. Heidi Rothberg Sport Medicine Center, Shaare Zedek Medical Center, Jerusalem, Jerusalem, Israel

    Naama W. Constantini

Glossary

Circadian phase

This is the phase of the circadian cycle, representing the timing of the internal biological clock and is usually estimated by measuring onset–offsets, troughs or peaks, or changes in slopes (i.e., increasing vs. decreasing) in circadian markers such as hormones (melatonin, cortisol, prolactin) or CBT. Circadian phase measurement should be performed in controlled dim light conditions. In animal research, rest–activity in dim light conditions is used to estimate circadian phase.

Circadian rhythms

A full 24-hour period rhythm that exists in all biological cells under a constant environment. It is derived from the Latin words circa and dies, meaning around and 1 day, respectively.

Chronobiology

The science concerned with the study of biological rhythms.

Chronotype

The natural tendency for an individual to either go to sleep and wake up early and perform best in the morning (a morning person AKA larks) or to go to sleep and wake up late and perform best in the evening (evening person AKA owls). The chronotype has been related to clock gene polymorphisms, to circadian sleep disorders, to mental and physical health.

Daily (diurnal) rhythms

Diurnal rhythms refer to variations in a physiological parameter with time of day. In contrast with circadian variations which are usually endogenous (i.e., intrinsically generated by the body clock; see below) but influenced by external light–dark cycle, diurnal variations can be either driven by the biological clock, external light–dark cycle, the sleep–wake cycle, or their interaction. These can be physiologic, hormonal, or behavioral in nature. They are measured with the light/dark cycle and sleep/wake cycle.

Entrainment

The process by which biological rhythms are synchronized (by timing signals) to a 24-h environmental cycle (usually the day/night cycle). Under entrainment or entrained conditions, circadian rhythms usually oscillate with a period of 24 h, induced by exposure to time cues (i.e., zeitgebers).

Free-running rhythm

A non-24-h rhythm seen in the absence of timing signals, most importantly in dark (or very dim light) conditions, which expresses the intrinsic circadian period of the circadian pacemaker (the suprachiasmatic nuclei, see below). Almost all animals have the internal circadian period slightly different than 24 h, either slightly shorter (as in most rodents) or slightly longer (as in humans, among other animals). Animals with longer than 24-h circadian rhythms tend to phase delay from 1 day to another in the absence of exposure to light during morning hours.

Jet lag

A circadian rhythm sleep disorder consisting of sleep difficulty at night, daytime sleepiness, impairment of daytime function, gastrointestinal disturbance, and general malaise associated with transmeridian air travel, resulting from a desynchrony between external time cues, sleep–wake, and timing of endogenous rhythms.

Masking

Obscuring of circadian rhythms (driven by the circadian pacemaker) by external or internal factors. For example, physiological processes and behaviors (such as opening and closure of eyelids, activity, food intake) associated with the sleep–wake cycle, exposure to bright light, eating, drinking, and standing could all be related to the rhythm of a physiological variable, though the rhythm is primarily generated endogenously by the circadian pacemaker. Therefore, measuring the rhythm of the variable (e.g., CBT) in the presence of an intact sleep–wake cycle and all the other external factors could “mask” the true contribution of the circadian pacemaker to the rhythm and lead to inaccurate measurements.

Misalignment protocol

(forced desynchrony) When an extreme non-24-hour cycle, like a 20-hour or a 28-hour cycle, is implemented to disentangle endogenous circadian rhythms and sleep–wake cycles.

Morningness–eveningness (ME)

The natural tendency for an individual to either go to sleep and wake up early and perform best in the morning (a morning person) or to go to sleep and wake up late and perform best in the evening (evening person). The ME has been related to clock gene polymorphisms and to circadian sleep disorders.

Nadir

This is the lowest point of a biological rhythm, e.g., the nadir of CBT is the lowest point on the CBT rhythm and is usually around 2 h before habitual wakening time in most individuals with a stable circadian rhythm.

Peripheral clocks

Autonomous clocks that exist in all cells of the body complementing the SCN which has a central clock. When aligned, these clocks work harmoniously with the master clock as well as with the environmental timing, and each other.

Phase advance

Positioning of a circadian rhythm earlier relative to clock time or other circadian markers.

Phase delay

Positioning of a circadian rhythm later relative to clock time or other circadian markers.

Phase response curve (PRC)

A graphical illustration of the relationship between the timing of exposure to a zeitgeber or other intervention (on the x-axis) and the shifting induced by the exposure to the zeitgeber or other intervention. Conventionally, on the y-axis, positive values represent phase advances, and negative values represent phase delays. For example, the circadian phase-shifting effects (advance or delay, depending on the time of exposure) of bright light or melatonin administration on any marker of circadian rhythms (such as CBT or the nocturnal melatonin secretion measured in blood or the onset of nocturnal melatonin secretion in saliva) have been presented as phase response curves. On the x-axis, timing is usually measured in relationship to a circadian marker—such as core temperature trough or the onset of melatonin secretion (i.e., internal timing) rather than external timing. Determination of circadian phase response curves is very demanding in terms of funds and time—requiring highly controlled conditions and minimizing exposure to zeitgebers.

Postprandial dip (or early afternoon dip)

The dip in performance observed during the midafternoon hours (incorrectly called postprandial), because it occurs in anticipation and not as a physiological reaction to the main meal of the day. For most individuals, performance measures (physical and cognitive) exhibit an increase from a low at the morning wake time to peak levels in the early evening time, but in some individuals a dip in performance is observed during the midafternoon hours.

Seasonal affective disorder

A form of depression that occurs in the fall and winter with spontaneous remission in spring and summer.

Suprachiasmatic nuclei (SCN)

A group of brain cells located bilaterally above the optic chiasm in the anterior basal hypothalamus and demonstrated to be the site of the master circadian oscillator (“body clock”) that synchronizes, as a conductor does with the orchestra, circadian rhythms of peripheral tissues, organs, and cells.

Wake maintenance zone

This is the time of the day (usually in the late evening) when the propensity for sleep is lowest and wakefulness or arousal is increased. The wake maintenance zone (also referred to as the forbidden zone for sleep) is mediated by the circadian pacemaker.

Zeitgeber

The name given to any external time-signaling stimuli that help maintain periodic regularity in circadian rhythms. It is a German word which literarily means “time giver.” Light is considered the most potent zeitgeber. Other zeitgebers are exercise, food, temperature, and social interactions.

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Postolache, T.T., Gulati, A., Okusaga, O.O., Stiller, J.W. (2020). An Introduction to Circadian Endocrine Physiology: Implications for Exercise and Sports Performance. In: Hackney, A., Constantini, N. (eds) Endocrinology of Physical Activity and Sport. Contemporary Endocrinology. Humana, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-33376-8_20

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