Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Diet and Lifestyle in Prostate Cancer

  • Chapter
  • First Online:
Prostate Cancer

Part of the book series: Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biology ((AEMB,volume 1210))

Abstract

A variety of diet and lifestyle factors have been studied with respect to prostate cancer risk in large, prospective cohort studies. In spite of this work, and in contrast to other common cancers, few modifiable risk factors have been firmly established as playing a role in prostate cancer. There are several possible explanations for the lack of well-established risk factors. First, prostate cancer has among the highest heritability of all common cancers; second, early life exposures may play an important role in risk, rather than mid- and later-life exposures assessed in most epidemiological studies. Finally, prostate-specific antigen (PSA) screening plays a critical role in prostate cancer detection and incidence rates, which has important implications for epidemiological studies.

Among modifiable risk factors, smoking and obesity are consistently associated with higher risk specifically of advanced prostate cancer. There is also considerable evidence for a positive association between dairy intake and overall prostate cancer risk, and an inverse association between cooked tomato/lycopene intake and risk of advanced disease. Several other dietary factors consistently associated with risk in observational studies, including selenium and vitamin E, have been cast into doubt by results from clinical trials. Results for other well-studied dietary factors, including fat intake, red meat, fish, vitamin D, soy and phytoestrogens are mixed.

In practical terms, men concerned with prostate cancer risk should be encouraged to stop smoking, be as physically active as possible, and achieve or maintain a healthy weight. These recommendations also have the advantage of having a positive impact on risk of type 2 diabetes, cardiovascular disease, and other chronic diseases. Reducing dairy intake while increasing consumption of fish and tomato products is also reasonable advice.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 189.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 249.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD 249.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

References

  1. H. Shimizu, R.K. Ross, L. Bernstein, R. Yatani, B.E. Henderson, T.M. Mack, Cancers of the prostate and breast among Japanese and white immigrants in Los Angeles County. Br. J. Cancer 63(6), 963–966 (1991)

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  2. G. Maskarinec, J.J. Noh, The effect of migration on cancer incidence among Japanese in Hawaii. Ethn. Dis. 14(3), 431–439 (2004)

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  3. J. Lee, K. Demissie, S.E. Lu, G.G. Rhoads, Cancer incidence among Korean-American immigrants in the United States and native Koreans in South Korea. Cancer Control 14(1), 78–85 (2007)

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  4. A.J. Hanley, B.C. Choi, E.J. Holowaty, Cancer mortality among Chinese migrants: a review. Int. J. Epidemiol. 24(2), 255–265 (1995)

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  5. M. McCredie, S. Williams, M. Coates, Cancer mortality in migrants from the British Isles and continental Europe to New South Wales, Australia, 1975-1995. Int. J. Cancer 83(2), 179–185 (1999)

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  6. L.A. Mucci, J.B. Hjelmborg, J.R. Harris, et al., Familial risk and heritability of cancer among twins in nordic countries. JAMA 315(1), 68–76 (2016)

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  7. J.L. Jahn, E.L. Giovannucci, M.J. Stampfer, The high prevalence of undiagnosed prostate cancer at autopsy: implications for epidemiology and treatment of prostate cancer in the Prostate-specific Antigen-era. Int. J. Cancer 137(12), 2795–2802 (2015)

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  8. J.R. Stark, S. Perner, M.J. Stampfer, et al., Gleason score and lethal prostate cancer: does 3 + 4 = 4 + 3? J. Clin. Oncol. 27(21), 3459–3464 (2009)

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  9. D.P. Rose, A.P. Boyar, E.L. Wynder, International comparisons of mortality rates for cancer of the breast, ovary, prostate, and colon, and per capita food consumption. Cancer 58(11), 2363–2371 (1986)

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  10. D. Aune, D.A. Navarro Rosenblatt, D.S. Chan, et al., Dairy products, calcium, and prostate cancer risk: a systematic review and meta-analysis of cohort studies. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 101(1), 87–117 (2015)

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  11. G.D. Batty, F. Barzi, M. Woodward, et al., Adult height and cancer mortality in Asia: the Asia Pacific Cohort Studies Collaboration. Ann. Oncol. 21(3), 646–654 (2010)

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  12. Emerging Risk Factors C, Adult height and the risk of cause-specific death and vascular morbidity in 1 million people: individual participant meta-analysis. Int. J. Epidemiol. 41(5), 1419–1433 (2012)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  13. L.A. Proos, Anthropometry in adolescence—secular trends, adoption, ethnic and environmental differences. Horm. Res. 39(Suppl 3), 18–24 (1993)

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  14. T.J. Cole, Secular trends in growth. Proc. Nutr. Soc. 59(2), 317–324 (2000)

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  15. J. Fudvoye, A.S. Parent, Secular trends in growth. Ann. Endocrinol. (Paris) 78(2), 88–91 (2017)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  16. A. Juul, P. Bang, N.T. Hertel, et al., Serum insulin-like growth factor-I in 1030 healthy children, adolescents, and adults: relation to age, sex, stage of puberty, testicular size, and body mass index. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 78(3), 744–752 (1994)

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  17. G. Beunen, M. Thomis, H.H. Maes, et al., Genetic variance of adolescent growth in stature. Ann. Hum. Biol. 27(2), 173–186 (2000)

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  18. A.S. Wiley, Does milk make children grow? Relationships between milk consumption and height in NHANES 1999-2002. Am. J. Hum. Biol. 17(4), 425–441 (2005)

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  19. S.J. Whiting, H. Vatanparast, A. Baxter-Jones, R.A. Faulkner, R. Mirwald, D.A. Bailey, Factors that affect bone mineral accrual in the adolescent growth spurt. J. Nutr. 134(3), 696S–700S (2004)

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  20. A. Alimujiang, G.A. Colditz, J.D. Gardner, Y. Park, C.S. Berkey, S. Sutcliffe, Childhood diet and growth in boys in relation to timing of puberty and adult height: the Longitudinal Studies of Child Health and Development. Cancer Causes Control 29(10), 915–926 (2018)

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  21. L.E. Underwood, Nutritional regulation of IGF-I and IGFBPs. J. Pediatr. Endocrinol. Metab. 9(Suppl 3), 303–312 (1996)

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  22. E. Giovannucci, M. Pollak, Y. Liu, et al., Nutritional predictors of insulin-like growth factor I and their relationships to cancer in men. Cancer Epidemiol. Biomark. Prev. 12(2), 84–89 (2003)

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  23. W.J. Smith, L.E. Underwood, D.R. Clemmons, Effects of caloric or protein restriction on insulin-like growth factor-I (IGF-I) and IGF-binding proteins in children and adults. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 80(2), 443–449 (1995)

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  24. L.B. Signorello, H. Kuper, P. Lagiou, et al., Lifestyle factors and insulin-like growth factor 1 levels among elderly men. Eur. J. Cancer Prev. 9(3), 173–178 (2000)

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  25. A.W. Roddam, N.E. Allen, P. Appleby, et al., Insulin-like growth factors, their binding proteins, and prostate cancer risk: analysis of individual patient data from 12 prospective studies. Ann. Intern. Med. 149(7), 461–471 (2008)., W483-468

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  26. M.A. Rowlands, D. Gunnell, R. Harris, L.J. Vatten, J.M. Holly, R.M. Martin, Circulating insulin-like growth factor peptides and prostate cancer risk: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Int. J. Cancer 124(10), 2416–2429 (2009)

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  27. C. Xu, F.F. Han, X.T. Zeng, T.Z. Liu, S. Li, Z.Y. Gao, I. Fat Intake, Not linked to prostate cancer: a systematic review and dose-response meta-analysis. PLoS One 10(7), e0131747 (2015)

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  CAS  Google Scholar 

  28. J.A. Simon, Y.H. Chen, S. Bent, The relation of alpha-linolenic acid to the risk of prostate cancer: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 89(5), 1558S–1564S (2009)

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  29. M. Carayol, P. Grosclaude, C. Delpierre, Prospective studies of dietary alpha-linolenic acid intake and prostate cancer risk: a meta-analysis. Cancer Causes Control 21(3), 347–355 (2010)

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  30. A.J. Carleton, J.L. Sievenpiper, R. de Souza, G. McKeown-Eyssen, D.J. Jenkins, Case-control and prospective studies of dietary alpha-linolenic acid intake and prostate cancer risk: a meta-analysis. BMJ Open 3(5) (2013)

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  31. E. Giovannucci, Y. Liu, E.A. Platz, M.J. Stampfer, W.C. Willett, Risk factors for prostate cancer incidence and progression in the health professionals follow-up study. Int. J. Cancer 121(7), 1571–1578 (2007)

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  32. J. Wu, K.M. Wilson, M.J. Stampfer, W.C. Willett, E.L. Giovannucci, A 24-year prospective study of dietary alpha-linolenic acid and lethal prostate cancer. Int. J. Cancer 142(11), 2207–2214 (2018)

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  33. D.O. Koralek, U. Peters, G. Andriole, et al., A prospective study of dietary alpha-linolenic acid and the risk of prostate cancer (United States). Cancer Causes Control 17(6), 783–791 (2006)

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  34. A.G. Schuurman, P.A. van den Brandt, E. Dorant, H.A. Brants, R.A. Goldbohm, Association of energy and fat intake with prostate carcinoma risk: results from The Netherlands Cohort Study. Cancer 86(6), 1019–1027 (1999)

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  35. S.Y. Park, S.P. Murphy, L.R. Wilkens, B.E. Henderson, L.N. Kolonel, Fat and meat intake and prostate cancer risk: the multiethnic cohort study. Int. J. Cancer 121(6), 1339–1345 (2007)

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  36. F.L. Crowe, P.N. Appleby, R.C. Travis, et al., Circulating fatty acids and prostate cancer risk: individual participant meta-analysis of prospective studies. J. Natl. Cancer Inst. 106(9) (2014)

    Google Scholar 

  37. E.L. Van Blarigan, S.A. Kenfield, M. Yang, et al., Fat intake after prostate cancer diagnosis and mortality in the Physicians’ Health Study. Cancer Causes Control 26(8), 1117–1126 (2015)

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  38. E.L. Richman, S.A. Kenfield, J.E. Chavarro, et al., Fat intake after diagnosis and risk of lethal prostate cancer and all-cause mortality. JAMA Intern. Med. 173(14), 1318–1326 (2013)

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  39. M.M. Epstein, J.L. Kasperzyk, L.A. Mucci, et al., Dietary fatty acid intake and prostate cancer survival in Orebro County, Sweden. Am. J. Epidemiol. 176(3), 240–252 (2012)

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  40. D.D. Alexander, P.J. Mink, C.A. Cushing, B. Sceurman, A review and meta-analysis of prospective studies of red and processed meat intake and prostate cancer. Nutr. J. 9, 50 (2010)

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  41. K. Wu, D. Spiegelman, T. Hou, et al., Associations between unprocessed red and processed meat, poultry, seafood and egg intake and the risk of prostate cancer: a pooled analysis of 15 prospective cohort studies. Int. J. Cancer 138(10), 2368–2382 (2016)

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  42. J.M. Major, A.J. Cross, J.L. Watters, A.R. Hollenbeck, B.I. Graubard, R. Sinha, Patterns of meat intake and risk of prostate cancer among African-Americans in a large prospective study. Cancer Causes Control 22(12), 1691–1698 (2011)

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  43. E.L. Richman, S.A. Kenfield, M.J. Stampfer, E.L. Giovannucci, J.M. Chan, Egg, red meat, and poultry intake and risk of lethal prostate cancer in the prostate-specific antigen-era: incidence and survival. Cancer Prev. Res. (Phila.) 4(12), 2110–2121 (2011)

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  44. A.M. Gilsing, M.P. Weijenberg, R.A. Goldbohm, P.C. Dagnelie, P.A. van den Brandt, L.J. Schouten, Vegetarianism, low meat consumption and the risk of lung, postmenopausal breast and prostate cancer in a population-based cohort study. Eur. J. Clin. Nutr. 70(6), 723–729 (2016)

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  45. R. Sinha, Y. Park, B.I. Graubard, et al., Meat and meat-related compounds and risk of prostate cancer in a large prospective cohort study in the United States. Am. J. Epidemiol. 170(9), 1165–1177 (2009)

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  46. S. Koutros, A.J. Cross, D.P. Sandler, et al., Meat and meat mutagens and risk of prostate cancer in the Agricultural Health Study. Cancer Epidemiol. Biomark. Prev. 17(1), 80–87 (2008)

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  47. S. Sharma, X. Cao, L.R. Wilkens, et al., Well-done meat consumption, NAT1 and NAT2 acetylator genotypes and prostate cancer risk: the multiethnic cohort study. Cancer Epidemiol. Biomark. Prev. 19(7), 1866–1870 (2010)

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  48. A. Sander, J. Linseisen, S. Rohrmann, Intake of heterocyclic aromatic amines and the risk of prostate cancer in the EPIC-Heidelberg cohort. Cancer Causes Control 22(1), 109–114 (2011)

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  49. S. Rohrmann, K. Nimptsch, R. Sinha, et al., Intake of meat mutagens and risk of prostate cancer in a cohort of U.S. health professionals. Cancer Epidemiol. Biomark. Prev. 24(10), 1557–1563 (2015)

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  50. A.J. Cross, U. Peters, V.A. Kirsh, et al., A prospective study of meat and meat mutagens and prostate cancer risk. Cancer Res. 65(24), 11779–11784 (2005)

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  51. M. Yang, S.A. Kenfield, E.L. Van Blarigan, et al., Dietary patterns after prostate cancer diagnosis in relation to disease-specific and total mortality. Cancer Prev. Res. (Phila.) 8(6), 545–551 (2015)

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  52. K.M. Wilson, L.A. Mucci, B.F. Drake, et al., Meat, fish, poultry, and egg intake at diagnosis and risk of prostate cancer progression. Cancer Prev. Res. (Phila.) 9(12), 933–941 (2016)

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  53. P.A. Nutting, W.L. Freeman, D.R. Risser, et al., Cancer incidence among American Indians and Alaska Natives, 1980 through 1987. Am. J. Public Health 83(11), 1589–1598 (1993)

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  54. J. Zhang, S. Sasaki, K. Amano, H. Kesteloot, Fish consumption and mortality from all causes, ischemic heart disease, and stroke: an ecological study. Prev. Med. 28(5), 520–529 (1999)

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  55. E. Dewailly, G. Mulvad, H. Sloth Pedersen, J.C. Hansen, N. Behrendt, J.P. Hart Hansen, Inuit are protected against prostate cancer. Cancer Epidemiol. Biomark. Prev. 12(9), 926–927 (2003)

    Google Scholar 

  56. J.M. Chan, P.H. Gann, E.L. Giovannucci, Role of diet in prostate cancer development and progression. J. Clin. Oncol. 23(32), 8152–8160 (2005)

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  57. S.H. Nash, J.M. Schenk, A.R. Kristal, et al., Association between serum phospholipid fatty acids and intraprostatic inflammation in the placebo arm of the prostate cancer prevention trial. Cancer Prev. Res. (Phila.) 8(7), 590–596 (2015)

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  58. T.M. Brasky, C. Till, E. White, et al., Serum phospholipid fatty acids and prostate cancer risk: results from the prostate cancer prevention trial. Am. J. Epidemiol. 173(12), 1429–1439 (2011)

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  59. F.L. Crowe, N.E. Allen, P.N. Appleby, et al., Fatty acid composition of plasma phospholipids and risk of prostate cancer in a case-control analysis nested within the European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 88(5), 1353–1363 (2008)

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  60. J.E. Chavarro, M.J. Stampfer, H. Li, H. Campos, T. Kurth, J. Ma, A prospective study of polyunsaturated fatty acid levels in blood and prostate cancer risk. Cancer Epidemiol. Biomark. Prev. 16(7), 1364–1370 (2007)

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  61. K.M. Szymanski, D.C. Wheeler, L.A. Mucci, Fish consumption and prostate cancer risk: a review and meta-analysis. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 92(5), 1223–1233 (2010)

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  62. M. Aucoin, K. Cooley, C. Knee, et al., Fish-derived omega-3 fatty acids and prostate cancer: a systematic review. Integr. Cancer Ther. 16(1), 32–62 (2017)

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  63. J.E. Torfadottir, U.A. Valdimarsdottir, L.A. Mucci, et al., Consumption of fish products across the lifespan and prostate cancer risk. PLoS One 8(4), e59799 (2013)

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  64. J.E. Manson, N.R. Cook, I.M. Lee, et al., Marine n-3 fatty acids and prevention of cardiovascular disease and cancer. N. Engl. J. Med. 380(1), 23–32 (2019)

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  65. K.M. Wilson, I.M. Shui, L.A. Mucci, E. Giovannucci, Calcium and phosphorus intake and prostate cancer risk: a 24-y follow-up study. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 101(1), 173–183 (2015)

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  66. E. Giovannucci, Dietary influences of 1,25(OH)2 vitamin D in relation to prostate cancer: a hypothesis. Cancer Causes Control 9(6), 567–582 (1998)

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  67. J. Ma, E. Giovannucci, M. Pollak, et al., Milk intake, circulating levels of insulin-like growth factor-I, and risk of colorectal cancer in men. J. Natl. Cancer Inst. 93(17), 1330–1336 (2001)

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  68. A. Berruti, L. Dogliotti, G. Gorzegno, et al., Differential patterns of bone turnover in relation to bone pain and disease extent in bone in cancer patients with skeletal metastases. Clin. Chem. 45(8 Pt 1), 1240–1247 (1999)

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  69. A. Schneider, L.M. Kalikin, A.C. Mattos, et al., Bone turnover mediates preferential localization of prostate cancer in the skeleton. Endocrinology 146(4), 1727–1736 (2005)

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  70. J. Sturge, M.P. Caley, J. Waxman, Bone metastasis in prostate cancer: emerging therapeutic strategies. Nat. Rev. Clin. Oncol. 8(6), 357–368 (2011)

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  71. A. Pettersson, J.L. Kasperzyk, S.A. Kenfield, et al., Milk and dairy consumption among men with prostate cancer and risk of metastases and prostate cancer death. Cancer Epidemiol. Biomark. Prev. 21(3), 428–436 (2012)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  72. M.K. Downer, J.L. Batista, L.A. Mucci, et al., Dairy intake in relation to prostate cancer survival. Int. J. Cancer 140(9), 2060–2069 (2017)

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  73. M. Yang, S.A. Kenfield, E.L. Van Blarigan, et al., Dairy intake after prostate cancer diagnosis in relation to disease-specific and total mortality. Int. J. Cancer 137(10), 2462–2469 (2015)

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  74. R. Gilbert, C. Metcalfe, W.D. Fraser, et al., Associations of circulating 25-hydroxyvitamin D with prostate cancer diagnosis, stage and grade. Int. J. Cancer 131(5), 1187–1196 (2012)

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  75. S. Gandini, M. Boniol, J. Haukka, et al., Meta-analysis of observational studies of serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D levels and colorectal, breast and prostate cancer and colorectal adenoma. Int. J. Cancer 128(6), 1414–1424 (2011)

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  76. I.M. Shui, A.M. Mondul, S. Lindstrom, et al., Circulating vitamin D, vitamin D-related genetic variation, and risk of fatal prostate cancer in the National Cancer Institute Breast and Prostate Cancer Cohort Consortium. Cancer 121(12), 1949–1956 (2015)

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  77. J.M. Schenk, C.A. Till, C.M. Tangen, et al., Serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D concentrations and risk of prostate cancer: results from the Prostate Cancer Prevention Trial. Cancer Epidemiol. Biomark. Prev. 23(8), 1484–1493 (2014)

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  78. J. Brandstedt, M. Almquist, J. Manjer, J. Malm, D. Vitamin, PTH, and calcium and the risk of prostate cancer: a prospective nested case-control study. Cancer Causes Control 23(8), 1377–1385 (2012)

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  79. D. Albanes, A.M. Mondul, K. Yu, et al., Serum 25-hydroxy vitamin D and prostate cancer risk in a large nested case-control study. Cancer Epidemiol. Biomark. Prev. 20(9), 1850–1860 (2011)

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  80. A.R. Kristal, C. Till, X. Song, et al., Plasma vitamin D and prostate cancer risk: results from the Selenium and Vitamin E Cancer Prevention Trial. Cancer Epidemiol. Biomark. Prev. 23(8), 1494–1504 (2014)

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  81. J.E. Manson, N.R. Cook, I.M. Lee, et al., Vitamin D supplements and prevention of cancer and cardiovascular disease. N. Engl. J. Med. 380(1), 33–44 (2019)

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  82. R. Gilbert, R.M. Martin, R. Beynon, et al., Associations of circulating and dietary vitamin D with prostate cancer risk: a systematic review and dose-response meta-analysis. Cancer Causes Control 22(3), 319–340 (2011)

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  83. S. Tretli, E. Hernes, J.P. Berg, U.E. Hestvik, T.E. Robsahm, Association between serum 25(OH)D and death from prostate cancer. Br. J. Cancer 100(3), 450–454 (2009)

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  84. F. Fang, J.L. Kasperzyk, I. Shui, et al., Prediagnostic plasma vitamin D metabolites and mortality among patients with prostate cancer. PLoS One 6(4), e18625 (2011)

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  85. I.M. Shui, L.A. Mucci, P. Kraft, et al., Vitamin D-related genetic variation, plasma vitamin D, and risk of lethal prostate cancer: a prospective nested case-control study. J. Natl. Cancer Inst. 104(9), 690–699 (2012)

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  86. J. Brandstedt, M. Almquist, J. Manjer, J. Malm, D. Vitamin, PTH, and calcium in relation to survival following prostate cancer. Cancer Causes Control 27(5), 669–677 (2016)

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  87. S.K. Holt, S. Kolb, R. Fu, R. Horst, Z. Feng, J.L. Stanford, Circulating levels of 25-hydroxyvitamin D and prostate cancer prognosis. Cancer Epidemiol. 37(5), 666–670 (2013)

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  88. S.K. Holt, E.M. Kwon, J.S. Koopmeiners, et al., Vitamin D pathway gene variants and prostate cancer prognosis. Prostate 70(13), 1448–1460 (2010)

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  89. L. Chen, G. Davey Smith, D.M. Evans, et al., Genetic variants in the vitamin D receptor are associated with advanced prostate cancer at diagnosis: findings from the prostate testing for cancer and treatment study and a systematic review. Cancer Epidemiol. Biomark. Prev. 18(11), 2874–2881 (2009)

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  90. S. Gandini, P. Gnagnarella, D. Serrano, E. Pasquali, S. Raimondi, Vitamin D receptor polymorphisms and cancer. Adv. Exp. Med. Biol. 810, 69–105 (2014)

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  91. W.K. Hendrickson, R. Flavin, J.L. Kasperzyk, et al., Vitamin D receptor protein expression in tumor tissue and prostate cancer progression. J. Clin. Oncol. 29(17), 2378–2385 (2011)

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  92. E. Giovannucci, A. Ascherio, E.B. Rimm, M.J. Stampfer, G.A. Colditz, W.C. Willett, Intake of carotenoids and retinol in relation to risk of prostate cancer. J. Natl. Cancer Inst. 87(23), 1767–1776 (1995)

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  93. J.L. Rowles 3rd, K.M. Ranard, J.W. Smith, R. An, J.W. Erdman Jr., Increased dietary and circulating lycopene are associated with reduced prostate cancer risk: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Prostate Cancer Prostatic Dis. 20(4), 361–377 (2017)

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  94. K. Zu, L. Mucci, B.A. Rosner, et al., Dietary lycopene, angiogenesis, and prostate cancer: a prospective study in the prostate-specific antigen era. J. Natl. Cancer Inst. 106(2), djt430 (2014)

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  CAS  Google Scholar 

  95. C. Gartner, W. Stahl, H. Sies, Lycopene is more bioavailable from tomato paste than from fresh tomatoes. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 66(1), 116–122 (1997)

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  96. E. Giovannucci, E.B. Rimm, Y. Liu, M.J. Stampfer, W.C. Willett, A prospective study of tomato products, lycopene, and prostate cancer risk. J. Natl. Cancer Inst. 94(5), 391–398 (2002)

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  97. E.M. Grainger, C.W. Hadley, N.E. Moran, et al., A comparison of plasma and prostate lycopene in response to typical servings of tomato soup, sauce or juice in men before prostatectomy. Br. J. Nutr. 114(4), 596–607 (2015)

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  98. C.M. Yang, Y.T. Yen, C.S. Huang, M.L. Hu, Growth inhibitory efficacy of lycopene and beta-carotene against androgen-independent prostate tumor cells xenografted in nude mice. Mol. Nutr. Food Res. 55(4), 606–612 (2011)

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  99. S. Elgass, A. Cooper, M. Chopra, Lycopene inhibits angiogenesis in human umbilical vein endothelial cells and rat aortic rings. Br. J. Nutr. 108(3), 431–439 (2012)

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  100. M.L. Chen, Y.H. Lin, C.M. Yang, M.L. Hu, Lycopene inhibits angiogenesis both in vitro and in vivo by inhibiting MMP-2/uPA system through VEGFR2-mediated PI3K-Akt and ERK/p38 signaling pathways. Mol. Nutr. Food Res. 56(6), 889–899 (2012)

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  101. C.S. Huang, C.H. Chuang, T.F. Lo, M.L. Hu, Anti-angiogenic effects of lycopene through immunomodualtion of cytokine secretion in human peripheral blood mononuclear cells. J. Nutr. Biochem. 24(2), 428–434 (2013)

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  102. L.A. Mucci, A. Powolny, E. Giovannucci, et al., Prospective study of prostate tumor angiogenesis and cancer-specific mortality in the health professionals follow-up study. J. Clin. Oncol. 27(33), 5627–5633 (2009)

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  103. Y. Wang, E.J. Jacobs, C.C. Newton, M.L. McCullough, Lycopene, tomato products and prostate cancer-specific mortality among men diagnosed with nonmetastatic prostate cancer in the Cancer Prevention Study II Nutrition Cohort. Int. J. Cancer 138(12), 2846–2855 (2016)

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  104. M.J. Messina, V. Persky, K.D. Setchell, S. Barnes, Soy intake and cancer risk: a review of the in vitro and in vivo data. Nutr. Cancer 21(2), 113–131 (1994)

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  105. D.M. Tham, C.D. Gardner, W.L. Haskell, Clinical review 97: potential health benefits of dietary phytoestrogens: a review of the clinical, epidemiological, and mechanistic evidence. J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 83(7), 2223–2235 (1998)

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  106. H. Adlercreutz, W. Mazur, Phyto-oestrogens and Western diseases. Ann. Med. 29(2), 95–120 (1997)

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  107. A. Bylund, J.X. Zhang, A. Bergh, et al., Rye bran and soy protein delay growth and increase apoptosis of human LNCaP prostate adenocarcinoma in nude mice. Prostate 42(4), 304–314 (2000)

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  108. E. Kyle, L. Neckers, C. Takimoto, G. Curt, R. Bergan, Genistein-induced apoptosis of prostate cancer cells is preceded by a specific decrease in focal adhesion kinase activity. Mol. Pharmacol. 51(2), 193–200 (1997)

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  109. C.C. Applegate, J.L. Rowles, K.M. Ranard, S. Jeon, J.W. Erdman, Soy consumption and the risk of prostate cancer: an updated systematic review and meta-analysis. Nutrients 10(1) (2018)

    Article  PubMed Central  CAS  Google Scholar 

  110. M. Zhang, K. Wang, L. Chen, B. Yin, Y. Song, Is phytoestrogen intake associated with decreased risk of prostate cancer? A systematic review of epidemiological studies based on 17,546 cases. Andrology 4(4), 745–756 (2016)

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  111. S.Y. Park, S.P. Murphy, L.R. Wilkens, B.E. Henderson, L.N. Kolonel, S. Multiethnic Cohort, Legume and isoflavone intake and prostate cancer risk: the Multiethnic Cohort Study. Int. J. Cancer 123(4), 927–932 (2008)

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  112. N.E. Allen, C. Sauvaget, A.W. Roddam, et al., A prospective study of diet and prostate cancer in Japanese men. Cancer Causes Control 15(9), 911–920 (2004)

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  113. N. Kurahashi, M. Iwasaki, S. Sasazuki, et al., Soy product and isoflavone consumption in relation to prostate cancer in Japanese men. Cancer Epidemiol. Biomark. Prev. 16(3), 538–545 (2007)

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  114. M.C. Bosland, I. Kato, A. Zeleniuch-Jacquotte, et al., Effect of soy protein isolate supplementation on biochemical recurrence of prostate cancer after radical prostatectomy: a randomized trial. JAMA 310(2), 170–178 (2013)

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  115. Q. Jiang, Natural forms of vitamin E: metabolism, antioxidant, and anti-inflammatory activities and their role in disease prevention and therapy. Free Radic. Biol. Med. 72, 76–90 (2014)

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  116. M. Meydani, Vitamin E. Lancet 345(8943), 170–175 (1995)

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  117. S.N. Meydani, M.G. Hayek, Vitamin E and aging immune response. Clin. Geriatr. Med. 11(4), 567–576 (1995)

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  118. E.A. Ripoll, B.N. Rama, M.M. Webber, Vitamin E enhances the chemotherapeutic effects of adriamycin on human prostatic carcinoma cells in vitro. J. Urol. 136(2), 529–531 (1986)

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  119. K. Gunawardena, D.K. Murray, A.W. Meikle, Vitamin E and other antioxidants inhibit human prostate cancer cells through apoptosis. Prostate 44(4), 287–295 (2000)

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  120. Alpha-Tocopherol BCCPSG, The effect of vitamin E and beta carotene on the incidence of lung cancer and other cancers in male smokers. N. Engl. J. Med. 330(15), 1029–1035 (1994)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  121. O.P. Heinonen, D. Albanes, J. Virtamo, et al., Prostate cancer and supplementation with alpha-tocopherol and beta-carotene: incidence and mortality in a controlled trial. J. Natl. Cancer Inst. 90(6), 440–446 (1998)

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  122. W.J. Blot, J.Y. Li, P.R. Taylor, et al., Nutrition intervention trials in Linxian, China: supplementation with specific vitamin/mineral combinations, cancer incidence, and disease-specific mortality in the general population. J. Natl. Cancer Inst. 85(18), 1483–1492 (1993)

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  123. S.M. Lippman, E.A. Klein, P.J. Goodman, et al., Effect of selenium and vitamin E on risk of prostate cancer and other cancers: the Selenium and Vitamin E Cancer Prevention Trial (SELECT). JAMA 301(1), 39–51 (2009)

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  124. E.A. Klein, I.M. Thompson Jr., C.M. Tangen, et al., Vitamin E and the risk of prostate cancer: the Selenium and Vitamin E Cancer Prevention Trial (SELECT). JAMA 306(14), 1549–1556 (2011)

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  125. S.M. Lippman, P.J. Goodman, E.A. Klein, et al., Designing the Selenium and Vitamin E Cancer Prevention Trial (SELECT). J. Natl. Cancer Inst. 97(2), 94–102 (2005)

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  126. J.M. Gaziano, R.J. Glynn, W.G. Christen, et al., Vitamins E and C in the prevention of prostate and total cancer in men: the Physicians’ Health Study II randomized controlled trial. JAMA 301(1), 52–62 (2009)

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  127. U. Peters, A.J. Littman, A.R. Kristal, R.E. Patterson, J.D. Potter, E. White, E. Vitamin, selenium supplementation and risk of prostate cancer in the Vitamins and lifestyle (VITAL) study cohort. Cancer Causes Control 19(1), 75–87 (2008)

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  128. V.A. Kirsh, R.B. Hayes, S.T. Mayne, et al., Supplemental and dietary vitamin E, beta-carotene, and vitamin C intakes and prostate cancer risk. J. Natl. Cancer Inst. 98(4), 245–254 (2006)

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  129. J.M. Chan, M.J. Stampfer, J. Ma, E.B. Rimm, W.C. Willett, E.L. Giovannucci, Supplemental vitamin E intake and prostate cancer risk in a large cohort of men in the United States. Cancer Epidemiol. Biomark. Prev. 8(10), 893–899 (1999)

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  130. T.J. Key, P.N. Appleby, R.C. Travis, et al., Carotenoids, retinol, tocopherols, and prostate cancer risk: pooled analysis of 15 studies. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 102(5), 1142–1157 (2015)

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  131. G.F. Combs Jr., S.B. Combs, The nutritional biochemistry of selenium. Annu. Rev. Nutr. 4, 257–280 (1984)

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  132. C. Redman, J.A. Scott, A.T. Baines, et al., Inhibitory effect of selenomethionine on the growth of three selected human tumor cell lines. Cancer Lett. 125(1–2), 103–110 (1998)

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  133. D.G. Menter, A.L. Sabichi, S.M. Lippman, Selenium effects on prostate cell growth. Cancer Epidemiol. Biomark. Prev. 9(11), 1171–1182 (2000)

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  134. M.P. Rayman, The importance of selenium to human health. Lancet 356(9225), 233–241 (2000)

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  135. J. Neve, Human selenium supplementation as assessed by changes in blood selenium concentration and glutathione peroxidase activity. J. Trace Elem. Med. Biol. 9(2), 65–73 (1995)

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  136. A.J. Duffield-Lillico, B.L. Dalkin, M.E. Reid, et al., Selenium supplementation, baseline plasma selenium status and incidence of prostate cancer: an analysis of the complete treatment period of the Nutritional Prevention of Cancer Trial. BJU Int. 91(7), 608–612 (2003)

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  137. L.C. Clark, G.F. Combs Jr., B.W. Turnbull, et al., Effects of selenium supplementation for cancer prevention in patients with carcinoma of the skin. A randomized controlled trial. Nutritional Prevention of Cancer Study Group. JAMA 276(24), 1957–1963 (1996)

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  138. A.R. Kristal, A.K. Darke, J.S. Morris, et al., Baseline selenium status and effects of selenium and vitamin E supplementation on prostate cancer risk. J. Natl. Cancer Inst. 106(3), djt456 (2014)

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  CAS  Google Scholar 

  139. J. Yarmolinsky, C. Bonilla, P.C. Haycock, et al., Circulating selenium and prostate cancer risk: a mendelian randomization analysis. J. Natl. Cancer Inst. 110(9), 1035–1038 (2018)

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  CAS  Google Scholar 

  140. N.E. Allen, R.C. Travis, P.N. Appleby, et al., Selenium and prostate cancer: analysis of individual participant data from fifteen prospective studies. J. Natl. Cancer Inst. 108(11) (2016)

    Google Scholar 

  141. M. Outzen, A. Tjonneland, E.H. Larsen, et al., Selenium status and risk of prostate cancer in a Danish population. Br. J. Nutr. 115(9), 1669–1677 (2016)

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  142. Z. Cui, D. Liu, C. Liu, G. Liu, Serum selenium levels and prostate cancer risk: a MOOSE-compliant meta-analysis. Medicine (Baltimore) 96(5), e5944 (2017)

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  143. K. Sayehmiri, M. Azami, Y. Mohammadi, A. Soleymani, Z. Tardeh, The association between Selenium and Prostate Cancer: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Asian Pac. J. Cancer Prev. 19(6), 1431–1437 (2018)

    CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  144. S.A. Kenfield, E.L. Van Blarigan, N. DuPre, M.J. Stampfer, L.G. E, J.M. Chan, Selenium supplementation and prostate cancer mortality. J. Natl. Cancer Inst. 107(1), 360 (2015)

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  145. F. Islami, D.M. Moreira, P. Boffetta, S.J. Freedland, A systematic review and meta-analysis of tobacco use and prostate cancer mortality and incidence in prospective cohort studies. Eur. Urol. 66(6), 1054–1064 (2014)

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  146. M. Huncharek, K.S. Haddock, R. Reid, B. Kupelnick, Smoking as a risk factor for prostate cancer: a meta-analysis of 24 prospective cohort studies. Am. J. Public Health 100(4), 693–701 (2010)

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  147. Services USDoHaH, The Health Consequences of Smoking-50 Years of Progress: A Report of the Surgeon General (U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Chronic Disease Prevention and Health Promotion, Office on Smoking and Health, Atlanta, 2014)

    Google Scholar 

  148. M.G. Oefelein, M.I. Resnick, Association of tobacco use with hormone refractory disease and survival of patients with prostate cancer. J. Urol. 171(6 Pt 1), 2281–2284 (2004)

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  149. T. Pickles, M. Liu, E. Berthelet, et al., The effect of smoking on outcome following external radiation for localized prostate cancer. J. Urol. 171(4), 1543–1546 (2004)

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  150. J. Pantarotto, S. Malone, S. Dahrouge, V. Gallant, L. Eapen, Smoking is associated with worse outcomes in patients with prostate cancer treated by radical radiotherapy. BJU Int. 99(3), 564–569 (2007)

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  151. D.M. Moreira, J.A. Antonelli, J.C. Presti Jr., et al., Association of cigarette smoking with interval to biochemical recurrence after radical prostatectomy: results from the SEARCH database. Urology 76(5), 1218–1223 (2010)

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  152. C.E. Joshu, A.M. Mondul, C.L. Meinhold, et al., Cigarette smoking and prostate cancer recurrence after prostatectomy. J. Natl. Cancer Inst. 103(10), 835–838 (2011)

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  153. S.A. Kenfield, M.J. Stampfer, J.M. Chan, E. Giovannucci, Smoking and prostate cancer survival and recurrence. JAMA 305(24), 2548–2555 (2011)

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  154. M. Rieken, S.F. Shariat, L.A. Kluth, et al., Association of cigarette smoking and smoking cessation with biochemical recurrence of prostate cancer in patients treated with radical prostatectomy. Eur. Urol. 68(6), 949–956 (2015)

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  155. B.D. Carter, N.D. Freedman, E.J. Jacobs, Smoking and mortality—beyond established causes. N. Engl. J. Med. 372(22), 2170 (2015)

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  156. B. Foerster, C. Pozo, M. Abufaraj, et al., Association of smoking status with recurrence, metastasis, and mortality among patients with localized prostate cancer undergoing prostatectomy or radiotherapy: a systematic review and meta-analysis. JAMA Oncol. 4(7), 953–961 (2018)

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  157. R. Pasquali, F. Casimirri, S. Cantobelli, et al., Effect of obesity and body fat distribution on sex hormones and insulin in men. Metabolism 40(1), 101–104 (1991)

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  158. C.S. Mantzoros, E.I. Georgiadis, Body mass and physical activity are important predictors of serum androgen concentrations in young healthy men. Epidemiology 6(4), 432–435 (1995)

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  159. J.C. Seidell, K.M. Flegal, Assessing obesity: classification and epidemiology. Br. Med. Bull. 53(2), 238–252 (1997)

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  160. R.W. Taylor, D. Keil, E.J. Gold, S.M. Williams, A. Goulding, Body mass index, waist girth, and waist-to-hip ratio as indexes of total and regional adiposity in women: evaluation using receiver operating characteristic curves. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 67(1), 44–49 (1998)

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  161. Global BMIMC, E. Di Angelantonio, N. Bhupathiraju Sh, et al., Body-mass index and all-cause mortality: individual-participant-data meta-analysis of 239 prospective studies in four continents. Lancet 388(10046), 776–786 (2016)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  162. J.C. Seidell, T.L. Visscher, Body weight and weight change and their health implications for the elderly. Eur. J. Clin. Nutr. 54(Suppl 3), S33–S39 (2000)

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  163. A.G. Renehan, M. Tyson, M. Egger, R.F. Heller, M. Zwahlen, Body-mass index and incidence of cancer: a systematic review and meta-analysis of prospective observational studies. Lancet 371(9612), 569–578 (2008)

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  164. A. Discacciati, N. Orsini, A. Wolk, Body mass index and incidence of localized and advanced prostate cancer—a dose-response meta-analysis of prospective studies. Ann. Oncol. 23(7), 1665–1671 (2012)

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  165. A. Perez-Cornago, P.N. Appleby, T. Pischon, et al., Tall height and obesity are associated with an increased risk of aggressive prostate cancer: results from the EPIC cohort study. BMC Med. 15(1), 115 (2017)

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  CAS  Google Scholar 

  166. X. Zhang, G. Zhou, B. Sun, et al., Impact of obesity upon prostate cancer-associated mortality: a meta-analysis of 17 cohort studies. Oncol. Lett. 9(3), 1307–1312 (2015)

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  167. Prospective Studies C, G. Whitlock, S. Lewington, et al., Body-mass index and cause-specific mortality in 900 000 adults: collaborative analyses of 57 prospective studies. Lancet 373(9669), 1083–1096 (2009)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  168. S.P. Kelly, H. Lennon, M. Sperrin, et al., Body mass index trajectories across adulthood and smoking in relation to prostate cancer risks: the NIH-AARP diet and health study. Int. J. Epidemiol. 48(2), 464–473 (2019)

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  169. S.E. Bonn, F. Wiklund, A. Sjolander, et al., Body mass index and weight change in men with prostate cancer: progression and mortality. Cancer Causes Control 25(8), 933–943 (2014)

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  170. A. Cantarutti, S.E. Bonn, H.O. Adami, H. Gronberg, R. Bellocco, K. Balter, Body mass index and mortality in men with prostate cancer. Prostate 75(11), 1129–1136 (2015)

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  171. A.W. Hsing, J. Deng, I.A. Sesterhenn, et al., Body size and prostate cancer: a population-based case-control study in China. Cancer Epidemiol. Biomark. Prev. 9(12), 1335–1341 (2000)

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  172. W.R. Robinson, J. Stevens, M.D. Gammon, E.M. John, Obesity before age 30 years and risk of advanced prostate cancer. Am. J. Epidemiol. 161(12), 1107–1114 (2005)

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  173. M. Barba, I. Terrenato, H.J. Schunemann, et al., Indicators of sexual and somatic development and adolescent body size in relation to prostate cancer risk: results from a case-control study. Urology 72(1), 183–187 (2008)

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  174. E. Moller, K.M. Wilson, J.L. Batista, L.A. Mucci, K. Balter, E. Giovannucci, Body size across the life course and prostate cancer in the health professionals follow-up study. Int. J. Cancer 138(4), 853–865 (2016)

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  175. E. Giovannucci, E.B. Rimm, M.J. Stampfer, G.A. Colditz, W.C. Willett, Height, body weight, and risk of prostate cancer. Cancer Epidemiol. Biomark. Prev. 6(8), 557–563 (1997)

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  176. S.O. Andersson, J. Baron, R. Bergstrom, C. Lindgren, A. Wolk, H.O. Adami, Lifestyle factors and prostate cancer risk: a case-control study in Sweden. Cancer Epidemiol. Biomark. Prev. 5(7), 509–513 (1996)

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  177. A. Discacciati, N. Orsini, S.O. Andersson, O. Andren, J.E. Johansson, A. Wolk, Body mass index in early and middle-late adulthood and risk of localised, advanced and fatal prostate cancer: a population-based prospective study. Br. J. Cancer 105(7), 1061–1068 (2011)

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  178. A.G. Schuurman, R.A. Goldbohm, E. Dorant, P.A. van den Brandt, Anthropometry in relation to prostate cancer risk in the Netherlands cohort study. Am. J. Epidemiol. 151(6), 541–549 (2000)

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  179. G.G. Giles, G. Severi, D.R. English, et al., Early growth, adult body size and prostate cancer risk. Int. J. Cancer 103(2), 241–245 (2003)

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  180. A.J. Littman, E. White, A.R. Kristal, Anthropometrics and prostate cancer risk. Am. J. Epidemiol. 165(11), 1271–1279 (2007)

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  181. M.E. Wright, S.C. Chang, A. Schatzkin, et al., Prospective study of adiposity and weight change in relation to prostate cancer incidence and mortality. Cancer 109(4), 675–684 (2007)

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  182. W.R. Robinson, C. Poole, P.A. Godley, Systematic review of prostate cancer’s association with body size in childhood and young adulthood. Cancer Causes Control 19(8), 793–803 (2008)

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  183. N. Keum, D.C. Greenwood, D.H. Lee, et al., Adult weight gain and adiposity-related cancers: a dose-response meta-analysis of prospective observational studies. J. Natl. Cancer Inst. 107(2) (2015)

    Google Scholar 

  184. C. Rodriguez, S.J. Freedland, A. Deka, et al., Body mass index, weight change, and risk of prostate cancer in the cancer prevention study II nutrition cohort. Cancer Epidemiol. Biomark. Prev. 16(1), 63–69 (2007)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  185. J.K. Bassett, G. Severi, L. Baglietto, et al., Weight change and prostate cancer incidence and mortality. Int. J. Cancer 131(7), 1711–1719 (2012)

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  186. B.A. Dickerman, T.U. Ahearn, E. Giovannucci, et al., Weight change, obesity and risk of prostate cancer progression among men with clinically localized prostate cancer. Int. J. Cancer 141(5), 933–944 (2017)

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  187. B.M. Whitley, D.M. Moreira, J.A. Thomas, et al., Preoperative weight change and risk of adverse outcome following radical prostatectomy: results from the Shared Equal Access Regional Cancer Hospital database. Prostate Cancer Prostatic Dis. 14(4), 361–366 (2011)

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  188. C.E. Joshu, A.M. Mondul, A. Menke, et al., Weight gain is associated with an increased risk of prostate cancer recurrence after prostatectomy in the PSA era. Cancer Prev. Res. (Phila.) 4(4), 544–551 (2011)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  189. I.M. Lee, Exercise and physical health: cancer and immune function. Res. Q. Exerc. Sport 66(4), 286–291 (1995)

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  190. J.L. Durstine, W.L. Haskell, Effects of exercise training on plasma lipids and lipoproteins. Exerc. Sport Sci. Rev. 22, 477–521 (1994)

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  191. P.F. Kokkinos, B. Fernhall, Physical activity and high density lipoprotein cholesterol levels: what is the relationship? Sports Med. 28(5), 307–314 (1999)

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  192. P. Kokkinos, J. Myers, Exercise and physical activity: clinical outcomes and applications. Circulation 122(16), 1637–1648 (2010)

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  193. S.P. Helmrich, D.R. Ragland, R.W. Leung, R.S. Paffenbarger Jr., Physical activity and reduced occurrence of non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus. N. Engl. J. Med. 325(3), 147–152 (1991)

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  194. J.E. Manson, D.M. Nathan, A.S. Krolewski, M.J. Stampfer, W.C. Willett, C.H. Hennekens, A prospective study of exercise and incidence of diabetes among US male physicians. JAMA 268(1), 63–67 (1992)

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  195. J.L. Abramson, V. Vaccarino, Relationship between physical activity and inflammation among apparently healthy middle-aged and older US adults. Arch. Intern. Med. 162(11), 1286–1292 (2002)

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  196. E.S. Ford, Does exercise reduce inflammation? Physical activity and C-reactive protein among U.S. adults. Epidemiology 13(5), 561–568 (2002)

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  197. A.P. Simopoulos, Energy imbalance and cancer of the breast, colon and prostate. Med. Oncol. Tumor Pharmacother. 7(2–3), 109–120 (1990)

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  198. J. Flanagan, P.K. Gray, N. Hahn, et al., Presence of the metabolic syndrome is associated with shorter time to castration-resistant prostate cancer. Ann. Oncol. 22(4), 801–807 (2011)

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  199. I.N. Benke, M.F. Leitzmann, G. Behrens, D. Schmid, Physical activity in relation to risk of prostate cancer: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Ann. Oncol. 29(5), 1154–1179 (2018)

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  200. V. Rangul, E.R. Sund, P.J. Mork, O.D. Roe, A. Bauman, The associations of sitting time and physical activity on total and site-specific cancer incidence: results from the HUNT study, Norway. PLoS One 13(10), e0206015 (2018)

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  CAS  Google Scholar 

  201. E.L. Giovannucci, Y. Liu, M.F. Leitzmann, M.J. Stampfer, W.C. Willett, A prospective study of physical activity and incident and fatal prostate cancer. Arch. Intern. Med. 165(9), 1005–1010 (2005)

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  202. A.V. Patel, C. Rodriguez, E.J. Jacobs, L. Solomon, M.J. Thun, E.E. Calle, Recreational physical activity and risk of prostate cancer in a large cohort of U.S. men. Cancer Epidemiol. Biomark. Prev. 14(1), 275–279 (2005)

    Google Scholar 

  203. N.F. Johnsen, A. Tjonneland, B.L. Thomsen, et al., Physical activity and risk of prostate cancer in the European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition (EPIC) cohort. Int. J. Cancer 125(4), 902–908 (2009)

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  204. S.C. Moore, T.M. Peters, J. Ahn, et al., Physical activity in relation to total, advanced, and fatal prostate cancer. Cancer Epidemiol. Biomark. Prev. 17(9), 2458–2466 (2008)

    Article  Google Scholar 

  205. A. Grotta, M. Bottai, H.O. Adami, et al., Physical activity and body mass index as predictors of prostate cancer risk. World J. Urol. 33(10), 1495–1502 (2015)

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  206. S.A. Kenfield, J.L. Batista, J.L. Jahn, et al., Development and application of a lifestyle score for prevention of lethal prostate cancer. J. Natl. Cancer Inst. 108(3) (2016)

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  207. L. Bourke, D. Smith, L. Steed, et al., Exercise for men with prostate cancer: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Eur. Urol. 69(4), 693–703 (2016)

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  208. S.A. Kenfield, M.J. Stampfer, E. Giovannucci, J.M. Chan, Physical activity and survival after prostate cancer diagnosis in the health professionals follow-up study. J. Clin. Oncol. 29(6), 726–732 (2011)

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  209. B.A. Dickerman, E. Giovannucci, C.H. Pernar, L.A. Mucci, M.A. Hernan, Guideline-based physical activity and survival among US men with nonmetastatic prostate cancer. Am. J. Epidemiol. 188(3), 579–586 (2019)

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  210. E.L. Richman, S.A. Kenfield, M.J. Stampfer, A. Paciorek, P.R. Carroll, J.M. Chan, Physical activity after diagnosis and risk of prostate cancer progression: data from the cancer of the prostate strategic urologic research endeavor. Cancer Res. 71(11), 3889–3895 (2011)

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  211. E.R. Miller 3rd, R. Pastor-Barriuso, D. Dalal, R.A. Riemersma, L.J. Appel, E. Guallar, Meta-analysis: high-dosage vitamin E supplementation may increase all-cause mortality. Ann. Intern. Med. 142(1), 37–46 (2005)

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  212. G. Bjelakovic, D. Nikolova, L.L. Gluud, R.G. Simonetti, C. Gluud, Mortality in randomized trials of antioxidant supplements for primary and secondary prevention: systematic review and meta-analysis. JAMA 297(8), 842–857 (2007)

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Channing Division of Network Medicine, Harvard Medical School, Brigham and Women’s Hospital, Boston, MA, USA

    Kathryn M. Wilson & Lorelei A. Mucci

Authors
  1. Kathryn M. Wilson
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Lorelei A. Mucci
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Kathryn M. Wilson .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Laboratory Medicine and Pathology, Department of Urology, Masonic Cancer Center, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, USA

    Scott M. Dehm

  2. Departments of Urology, and Biochemistry & Molecular Biology, Mayo Clinic College of Medicine, Rochester, MN, USA

    Donald J. Tindall

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2019 Springer Nature Switzerland AG

About this chapter

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this chapter

Wilson, K.M., Mucci, L.A. (2019). Diet and Lifestyle in Prostate Cancer. In: Dehm, S., Tindall, D. (eds) Prostate Cancer. Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biology, vol 1210. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-32656-2_1

Download citation

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation