Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Vertebral Morphology in Hominoids II: The Lumbar Spine

  • Chapter
  • First Online:
Spinal Evolution

Abstract

The evolution of hominoids was accompanied by a transformation of the primate body plan from a monkey-like ancestral condition to one characterized by a derived suite of postcranial features. While diagnostic hominoid features are found throughout the postcranial skeleton, the trunk, and especially the lumbar region, is one of the most functionally important and immediately noticeable aspects of hominoid anatomy. Hominoids have a reduced number of lumbar vertebrae that are generally distinguished from those of their cercopithecoid close relatives with respect to dimensions of lumbar vertebral bodies and pedicles, position and orientation of transverse processes, shape and orientation of spinous processes, and orientation of zygapophyses at the thoracolumbar transition. Traditional functional interpretations emphasize that these features stiffen the lower body and limit sagittal mobility during orthogrady and/or forelimb-dominated behaviors. More recent comparative research on nonhominoid primates and other mammals support that hominoid lumbar features confer axial stability in a variety of positional behaviors, while studies of experimental biomechanics have revealed more rotational capabilities in the hominoid trunk than previously thought, and analyses of back musculature offer new information about fiber-type differences between hominoids and other primates. Multiple models concerning reconstruction of the trunk morphology and behavior of the crown hominoid ancestor, and the sequence in which aspects of the hominoid trunk evolved, have surfaced over the last decade. Given the numerous chapters in this volume devoted to human spinal morphology and adaptations to bipedalism, our discussion is focused primarily on lumbar anatomy shared by all hominoids.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
eBook
USD 16.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 129.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD 179.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Andrews P, Groves CP (1976) Gibbons and brachiation. In: Gibbon and Siamang, vol 4. Karger, Basel, pp 167–218

    Google Scholar 

  • Ankel F (1972) Vertebral morphology of fossil and extant primates. In: Tuttle R (ed) The functional and evolutionary biology of primates. Aldine, Chicago, pp 223–240

    Google Scholar 

  • Bagnall KM, Ford DM, McFadden KD, Greenhill BJ, Raso VJ (1983) A comparison of vertebral muscle fiber characteristics between human and monkey tissue. Cells Tissues Organs 117:51–57

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Been E, Gómez-Olivencia A, Kramer PA (2012) Lumbar lordosis of extinct hominins. Am J Phys Anthropol 147:64–77

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Benefit BR, McCrossin ML (1995) Miocene hominoids and hominid origins. Annu Rev Anthropol 24:237–256

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Benton RS (1967) Morphological evidence for adaptations within the epaxial region of the primates. In: Vagtborg H (ed) The baboon in medical research, vol 2. University of Texas Press, Austin, TX, pp 201–216

    Google Scholar 

  • Benton RS (1974) Structural patterns in the Pongidae and Cercopithecidae. Yearb Phys Anthropol 18:65–88

    Google Scholar 

  • Bodine SC, Roy RR, Meadows DA, Zernicke RF, Sacks RD, Fournier M, Edgerton VR (1982) Architectural, histochemical, and contractile characteristics of a unique biarticular muscle: the cat semitendinosus. J Neurophysiol 48:192–201

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Boszczyk BM, Boszczyk AA, Putz R (2001) Comparative and functional anatomy of the mammalian lumbar spine. Anat Rec 264:157–168

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Burke AC, Nelson CE, Morgan BA, Tabin C (1995) Hox genes and the evolution of vertebrate axial morphology. Development 121:333–346

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cartmill M, Brown K (2017) Posture, locomotion and bipedality: the case of the gerenuk (Litocranius walleri). In: Marom A, Hovers E (eds) Human paleontology and prehistory: contributions in honor of Yoel Rak. Springer, Cham, pp 53–70

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Cartmill M, Milton K (1977) The lorisiform wrist joint and the evolution of “brachiating” adaptations in the Hominoidea. Am J Phys Anthropol 47:249–272

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Crompton R, Vereecke E, Thorpe S (2008) Locomotion and posture from the common hominoid ancestor to fully modern hominins, with special reference to the last common panin/hominin ancestor. J Anat 212:501–543

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Davis PR (1961) Human lower lumbar vertebrae: some mechanical and osteological considerations. J Anat 95:337

    CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Delp SL, Suryanarayanan S, Murray WM, Uhlir J, Triolo RJ (2001) Architecture of the rectus abdominis, quadratus lumborum, and erector spinae. J Biomech 34:371–375

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Elftman HO (1932) The evolution of the pelvic floor of primates. Am J Anat 51:307–346

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Erikson GE (1963) Brachiation in New World monkeys and in anthropoid apes. Symp Zool Soc Lond 10:135–164

    Google Scholar 

  • Filler AG (2007a) Homeotic evolution in the mammalia: diversification of therian axial seriation and the morphogenetic basis of human origins. PLoS One 2:e1019

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Filler AG (2007b) Emergence and optimization of upright posture among hominiform hominoids and the evolutionary pathophysiology of back pain. Neurosurg Focus 23:E4

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ford DM, Bagnall KM, McFadden KD, Reid DC (1986) A comparison of muscle fiber characteristics at different levels of the vertebral column in the rhesus monkey. Cells Tissues Organs 126:163–166

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Gál JM (1993a) Mammalian spinal biomechanics. I. Static and dynamic mechanical properties of intact intervertebral joints. J Exp Biol 174:247–280

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gál JM (1993b) Mammalian spinal biomechanics. II. Intervertebral lesion experiments and mechanisms of bending resistance. J Exp Biol 174:281–297

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Galis F, Carrier DR, van Alphen J, van der Mije SD, Van Dooren TJM, Metz JAJ, ten Broek CMA (2014) Fast running restricts evolutionary change of the vertebral column in mammals. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 111:11401–11406

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Gambaryan P (1974) How mammals run: anatomical adaptations. John Wiley and Sons, New York

    Google Scholar 

  • Gans C (1982) Fiber architecture and muscle function. Exerc Sport Sci Rev 10:160–207

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • García Liñeiro JA, Graziotti GH, Rodríguez Menéndez JM, Ríos CM, Affricano NO, Victorica CL (2017) Structural and functional characteristics of the thoracolumbar multifidus muscle in horses. J Anat 230:398–406

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • García Liñeiro JA, Graziotti GH, Rodríguez Menéndez JM, Ríos CM, Affricano NO, Victorica CL (2018) Parameters and functional analysis of the deep epaxial muscles in the thoracic, lumbar and sacral regions of the equine spine. J Anat 233:55–63

    Article  PubMed  CAS  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Gebo DL (1996) Climbing, brachiation, and terrestrial quadrupedalism: historical precursors of hominid bipedalism. Am J Phys Anthropol 101:55–92

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Granatosky MC, Lemelin P, Chester SGB, Pampush JD, Schmitt D (2014a) Functional and evolutionary aspects of axial stability in euarchontans and other mammals. Journal of Morphol 275:313–327

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Granatosky MC, Miller CE, Boyer DM, Schmitt D (2014b) Lumbar vertebral morphology of flying, gliding, and suspensory mammals: implications for the locomotor behavior of the subfossil lemurs Palaeopropithecus and Babakotia. J Hum Evol 75:40–52

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Haeusler M, Martelli SA, Boeni T (2002) Vertebrae numbers of the early hominid lumbar spine. J Hum Evol 43:621–643

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Halpert AP, Jenkins FA Jr, Franks H (1987) Structure and scaling of the lumbar vertebrae in African bovids (Mammalia: Artiodactyla). J Zool 211:239–258

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Harrison T (1986) A reassessment of the phylogenetic relationships of Oreopithecus bambolii Gervais. J Hum Evol 15:541–583

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hesse B, Fröber R, Fischer MS, Schilling N (2013) Functional differentiation of the human lumbar perivertebral musculature revisited by means of muscle fibre type composition. Ann Anat 195:570–580

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Howell A, Straus W (1933) The muscular system. In: Hartman C, Straus W (eds) The anatomy of the rhesus monkey (Macaca mulatta). Williams and Wilkins, Baltimore, pp 89–175

    Google Scholar 

  • Hunt K (1991) Mechanical implications of chimpanzee positional behavior. Am J Phys Anthropol 86:521–536

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Huq E, Wall CE, Taylor AB (2015) Epaxial muscle fiber architecture favors enhanced excursion and power in the leaper Galago senegalensis. J Anat 227:524–540

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Huq E, Taylor AB, Su Z, Wall CE (2018) Fiber type composition of epaxial muscles is geared toward facilitating rapid spinal extension in the leaper Galago senegalensis. Am J Phys Anthropol 166:95–106

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Hurov J (1982) Surface EMG of superficial back mm. in human children: functions during vertical climbing and suspension and implications for the evolution of hominid bipedalism. J Hum Evol 11:117–130

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Johnson SE, Shapiro LJ (1998) Positional behavior and vertebral morphology in atelines and cebines. Am J Phys Anthropol 105:333–354

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Jolly CJ (1970) The seed-eaters: a new model of hominid differentiation based on a baboon analogy. Man 5:1–26

    Google Scholar 

  • Jones KE, Angielczyk KD, Polly PD, Head JJ, Fernandez V, Lungmus JK, Tulga S, Pierce SE (2018) Fossils reveal the complex evolutionary history of the mammalian regionalized spine. Science 361:1249–1252

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Jungers WL (1984) Scaling of the hominoid locomotor skeleton with special reference to lesser apes. In: Preuschoft H, Chivers D, Brockelman W, Creel N (eds) The lesser apes. Edinburgh University Press, Edinburgh, pp 146–169

    Google Scholar 

  • Keith A (1902) The extent to which the posterior segments of the body have been transmuted and suppressed in the evolution of man and allied primates. J Anat Physiol 37:18–40

    CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Keith A (1923) Man’s posture: its evolution and disorders. Br Med J 1:587–590

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Keith A (1940) Fifty years ago. Am J Phys Anthropol 26:251–267

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kernell D (1998) Muscle regionalization. Can J Appl Physiol 23:1–22

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kessel M, Gruss P (1991) Homeotic transformations of murine vertebrae and concomitant alteration of Hox codes induced by retinoic acid. Cell 67:89–104

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kojima R, Okada M (1996) Distribution of muscle fibre types in the thoracic and lumbar epaxial muscles of Japanese macaques (Macaca fuscata). Folia Primatol (Basel) 66:38–43

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Latimer B, Ward CV (1993) The thoracic and lumbar vertebrae. In: Walker A, Leakey R (eds) The Nariokotome Homo erectus Skeleton. Harvard University Press, Cambridge, pp 266–293

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Lemelin P (1995) Comparative and functional myology of the prehensile tail in New World monkeys. J Morphol 224:351–368

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lieber RL, Fridén J (2000) Functional and clinical significance of skeletal muscle architecture. Muscle Nerve 23:1647–1666

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lindstedt SL, McGlothlin T, Percy E, Pifer J (1998) Task-specific design of skeletal muscle: balancing muscle structural composition. Comp Biochem Physiol B Biochem Mol Biol 120:35–40

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lovejoy CO (2005) The natural history of human gait and posture: Part 1. Spine and pelvis. Gait Posture 21:95–112

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lovejoy CO, McCollum MA (2010) Spinopelvic pathways to bipedality: why no hominids ever relied on a bent-hip–bent-knee gait. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 365:3289–3299

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Lovejoy CO, Suwa G, Simpson SW, Matternes JH, White TD (2009) The great divides: Ardipithecus ramidus reveals the postcrania of our last common ancestors with African apes. Science 326:73–106

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Machnicki AL, Spurlock LB, Strier KB, Reno PL, Lovejoy CO (2016) First steps of bipedality in hominids: evidence from the atelid and proconsulid pelvis. PeerJ 4:e1521

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • MacLatchy L, Gebo D, Kityo R, Pilbeam DR (2000) Postcranial functional morphology of Morotopithecus bishopi, with implications for the evolution of modern ape locomotion. J Hum Evol 39:159–183

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mallo M, Wellik DM, Deschamps J (2010) Hox genes and regional patterning of the vertebrate body plan. Dev Biol 344:7–15

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Masharawi Y, Rothschild B, Dar G, Peleg S, Robinson D, Been E, Hershkovitz I (2004) Facet orientation in the thoracolumbar spine: three-dimensional anatomic and biomechanical analysis. Spine 29:1755–1763

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Masharawi YM, Alperovitch-Najenson D, Steinberg N, Dar G, Peleg S, Rothschild B, Salame K, Hershkovitz I (2007a) Lumbar facet orientation in spondylolysis: a skeletal study. Spine 32:E176–E180

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Masharawi Y, Dar G, Peleg S, Steinberg N, Alperovitch-Najenson D, Salame K, Hershkovitz I (2007b) Lumbar facet anatomy changes in spondylolysis: a comparative skeletal study. Eur Spine J 16:993–999

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • McCollum MA, Rosenman BA, Suwa G, Meindl RS, Lovejoy CO (2010) The vertebral formula of the last common ancestor of African apes and humans. J Exp Zool B Mol Dev Evol 314:123–134

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • McNulty KP, Begun DR, Kelley J, Manthi FK, Mbua EN (2015) A systematic revision of Proconsul with the description of a new genus of early Miocene hominoid. J Hum Evol 84:42–61

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Middleton ER, Winkler ZJ, Hammond AS, Plavcan JM, Ward CV (2017) Determinants of iliac blade orientation in anthropoid primates. Anat Rec 300:810–827

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mivart SG (1865) Contributions towards a more complete knowledge of the axial skeleton in the primates. Proc Zool Soc London 33:545–592

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Nakatsukasa M (2003) Definitive evidence for tail loss in Nacholapithecus, an East African Miocene hominoid. J Hum Evol 45:179–186

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Nakatsukasa M, Hirose Y (2003) Scaling of lumbar vertebrae in anthropoids and implications for evolution of the hominoid axial skeleton. Primates 44:127–135

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Nakatsukasa M, Kunimatsu Y (2009) Nacholapithecus and its importance for understanding hominoid evolution. Evol Anthropol Issues News Rev 18:103–119

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Nalley TK, Grider-Potter N (2019) Vertebral morphology in relation to head posture and locomotion: the cervical spine. In: Been E, Gómez-Olivencia A, Kramer PA (eds) Spinal evolution: morphology, function, and pathology of the spine in hominoid evolution. Springer, New York, pp 35–50

    Google Scholar 

  • Neufuss J, Hesse B, Thorpe SKS, Vereecke EE, D’Aout K, Fischer MS, Schilling N (2014) Fibre type composition in the lumbar perivertebral muscles of primates: implications for the evolution of orthogrady in hominoids. J Anat 224:113–131

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Odgers PNB (1933) The lumbar and lumbo-sacral diarthrodial joints. J Anat 67:301

    CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Perry JM, Prufrock KA (2018) Muscle functional morphology in paleobiology: the past, present, and future of “paleomyology”. Anat Rec 301:538–555

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pilbeam D (2004) The anthropoid postcranial axial skeleton: comments on development, variation, and evolution. J Exp Zool B Mol Dev Evol 302:241–267

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Powell PL, Roy RR, Kanim P, Bello MA, Edgerton VR (1984) Predictability of skeletal muscle tension from architectural determinations in guinea pig hindlimbs. J Appl Physiol 57:1715–1721

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Reno PL (2014) Genetic and developmental basis for parallel evolution and its significance for hominoid evolution. Evol Anthropol Issues News Rev 23:188–200

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rose MD (1975) Functional proportions of primate lumbar vertebral bodies. J Hum Evol 4:21–38

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Russo GA (2010) Prezygapophyseal articular facet shape in the catarrhine thoracolumbar vertebral column. Am J Phys Anthropol 142:600–612

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Russo GA, Shapiro LJ (2011) Morphological correlates of tail length in the catarrhine sacrum. J Hum Evol 61:223–232

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Russo GA, Williams SA (2015) Giant pandas (Carnivora: Ailuropoda melanoleuca) and living hominoids converge on lumbar vertebral adaptations to orthograde trunk posture. J Hum Evol 88:160–179

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sanders WJ (1998) Comparative morphometric study of the australopithecine vertebral series Stw-H8/H41. J Hum Evol 34:249–302

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sanders WJ, Bodenbender BE (1994) Morphometric analysis of lumbar vertebra UMP 67-28: implications for spinal function and phylogeny of the Miocene Moroto hominoid. J Hum Evol 26:203–237

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sargis EJ (2001) A preliminary qualitative analysis of the axial skeleton of tupaiids (Mammalia, Scandentia): functional morphology and phylogenetic implications. J Zool 253:473–483

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sarmiento EE (1987) The phylogenetic position of Oreopithecus and its significance in the origin of the Hominoidea. Am Mus Novit 2881:1–44

    Google Scholar 

  • Sarmiento EE (1998) Generalized quadrupeds, committed bipeds, and the shift to open habitats: an evolutionary model of hominid divergence. Am Mus Novit 3250:1–78

    Google Scholar 

  • Schaeffer PJ, Lindstedt SL (2013) How animals move: comparative lessons on animal locomotion. Compr Physiol 3:289–314

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Schiaffino S, Reggiani C (2011) Fiber types in mammalian skeletal muscles. Physiol Rev 91:1447–1531

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Schilling N (2009) Metabolic profile of the perivertebral muscles in small therian mammals: implications for the evolution of the mammalian trunk musculature. Zoology 112:279–304

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Schilling N (2011) Evolution of the axial system in craniates: morphology and function of the perivertebral musculature. Front Zool 8:4

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Schilling N, Arnold D, Wagner H, Fischer MS (2005) Evolutionary aspects and muscular properties of the trunk—implications for human low back pain. Pathophysiology 12:233–242

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Schultz AH (1950) The physical distinctions of man. Proc Am Philos Soc 94:428–449

    Google Scholar 

  • Schultz A (1961) Vertebral column and thorax. Primatologia 4:1–66

    Google Scholar 

  • Shapiro LJ (1991) Functional morphology of the primate spine with special reference to orthograde posture and bipedal locomotion. PhD Thesis, State University of New York Stony Brook

    Google Scholar 

  • Shapiro LJ (1993a) Functional morphology of the vertebral column in primates. In: Gebo D (ed) Postcranial adaptation in nonhuman primates. Northern Illinois University Press, DeKalb, pp 121–149

    Google Scholar 

  • Shapiro LJ (1993b) Evaluation of “unique” aspects of human vertebral bodies and pedicles with a consideration of Australopithecus africanus. J Hum Evol 25:433–470

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Shapiro LJ (1995) Functional morphology of indrid lumbar vertebrae. Am J Phys Anthropol 98:323–342

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Shapiro LJ (2007) Morphological and functional differentiation in the lumbar spine of lorisids and galagids. Am J Primatol 69:86–102

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Shapiro LJ, Jungers WL (1988) Back muscle function during bipedal walking in chimpanzee and gibbon: implications for the evolution of human locomotion. Am J Phys Anthropol 77:201–212

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Shapiro LJ, Jungers WL (1994) Electromyography of back muscles during quadrupedal and bipedal walking in primates. Am J Phys Anthropol 93:491–504

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Shapiro LJ, Kemp AD (2019) Functional and developmental influences on intraspecific variation in catarrhine vertebrae. Am J Phys Anthropol 168:131–144

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Shapiro LJ, Simons C (2002) Functional aspects of strepsirrhine lumbar vertebral bodies and spinous processes. J Hum Evol 42:753–783

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Shapiro LJ, Seiffert CV, Godfrey LR, Jungers WL, Simons EL, Randria GF (2005) Morphometric analysis of lumbar vertebrae in extinct Malagasy strepsirrhines. Am J Phys Anthropol 128:823–839

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Slijper E (1946) Comparative biologic anatomical investigations on the vertebral column and spinal musculature of mammals, vol 17. North-Holland Publishing Company, Amsterdam, pp 1–128. Tweede Sectie

    Google Scholar 

  • Stark H, Fröber R, Schilling N (2013) Intramuscular architecture of the autochthonous back muscles in humans. J Anat 222:214–222

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Straus WL, Wislocki GB (1932) On certain similarities between sloths and slow lemurs. Bull Mus Comp Zool Harv Collect 74:45–56

    Google Scholar 

  • Struthers J (1892) On the articular processes of the vertebrae in the gorilla compared with those in man, and on cost-vertebral variation in the gorilla. J Anat 27:131–138

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Thompson NE, Almécija S (2017) The evolution of vertebral formulae in Hominoidea. J Hum Evol 110:18–36

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Thompson NE, Demes B, O’Neill MC, Holowka NB, Larson SG (2015) Surprising trunk rotational capabilities in chimpanzees and implications for bipedal walking proficiency in early hominins. Nat Commun 6:8416

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Townsend HGG, Leach DH (1984) Relationship between intervertebral joint morphology and mobility in the equine thoracolumbar spine. Equine Vet J 16:461–465

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tuttle RH (1975) Parallelism, brachiation, and hominid phylogeny. In: Luckett WP, Szalay FS (eds) The phylogeny of primates: a multidisciplinary approach. Plenum, New York, pp 447–480

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Tuttle RH, Basmajian JV (1978) Electromyography of pongid shoulder muscles. III. Quadrupedal positional behavior. Am J Phys Anthropol 49:57–69

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ward CV (1993) Torso morphology and locomotion in Proconsul nyanzae. Am J Phys Anthropol 92:291–328

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ward CV (2014) Postcranial and locomotor adaptations of hominoids. In: Henke W, Tattersall I (eds) Handbook of paleoanthropology. Springer-Verlag, Berlin, pp 1011–1030

    Google Scholar 

  • Ward CV, Latimer B (2005) Human evolution and the development of spondylolysis. Spine 30:1808–1814

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ward SR, Kim CW, Eng CM, Gottschalk LJ, Tomiya A, Garfin SR, Lieber RL (2009) Architectural analysis and intraoperative measurements demonstrate the unique design of the multifidus muscle for lumbar spine stability. J Bone Joint Surg Am 91:176–185

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Ward CV, Maddux SD, Middleton ER (2018) Three-dimensional anatomy of the anthropoid bony pelvis. Am J Phys Anthropol 166:3–25

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Washburn S (1963) Behavior and human evolution. In: Washburn S (ed) Classification and human evolution. Aldine, Chicago

    Google Scholar 

  • Washburn S, Buettner-Janusch J (1952) The definition of thoracic and lumbar vertebrae. Am J Phys Anthropol 10:251–252

    Google Scholar 

  • Webster EL, Hudson PE, Channon SB (2014) Comparative functional anatomy of the epaxial musculature of dogs (Canis familiaris) bred for sprinting vs. fighting. J Anat 225:317–327

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Wellik DM (2009) Hox genes and vertebrate axial pattern. Curr Top Dev Biol 88:257–278

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wellik DM, Capecchi MR (2003) Hox10 and Hox11 genes are required to globally pattern the mammalian skeleton. Science 301:363–367

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Whitcome KK (2012) Functional implications of variation in lumbar vertebral count among hominins. J Hum Evol 62:486–497

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Whitcome KK, Shapiro LJ, Lieberman DE (2007) Fetal load and the evolution of lumbar lordosis in bipedal hominins. Nature 450:1075–1078

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Williams SA (2012a) Placement of the diaphragmatic vertebra in catarrhines: implications for the evolution of dorsostability in hominoids and bipedalism in hominins. Am J Phys Anthropol 148:111–122

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Williams SA (2012b) Variation in anthropoid vertebral formulae: implications for homology and homoplasy in hominoid evolution. J Exp Zool B Mol Dev Evol 318:134–147

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Williams SA, Gómez-Olivencia A, Pilbeam D (2019) Numbers of Vertebrae in Hominoid Evolution. In: Been E, Gómez-Olivencia A, Kramer PA (eds) Spinal evolution: morphology,function, and pathology of the spine in hominoid evolution. Springer, New York, pp 97–124

    Google Scholar 

  • Williams SA, Middleton ER, Villamil CI, Shattuck MR (2016) Vertebral numbers and human evolution. Am J Phys Anthropol 159:19–36

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Williams SA, Russo GA (2015) Evolution of the hominoid vertebral column: the long and the short of it. Evol Anthropol Issues News Rev 24:15–32

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Yokoyama Y (1982) Analyses on the fiber compositions of the lumbar back muscles in mammals. Nihon Seikeigeka Gakkai Zasshi 56:579–594

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgments

We wish to thank Ella Been, Asier Gómez-Olivencia, and Patricia Kramer for inviting us to contribute to this volume and for providing comments, along with those of the anonymous reviewer, that greatly improved the manuscript. We also thank Andrea Taylor for very helpful discussion and feedback on muscle architecture and Scott Williams for surface scans used in Figs. 4.1, 4.3, and 4.4.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Anthropology, University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX, USA

    Liza J. Shapiro

  2. Department of Anthropology, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, NY, USA

    Gabrielle A. Russo

Authors
  1. Liza J. Shapiro
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Gabrielle A. Russo
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Liza J. Shapiro .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Sports Therapy, Department of Anatomy and Anthropology, Faculty of Health Professions, Ono Academic College, Sackler Faculty of Medicine, Kiryat Ono, Tel Aviv, Israel

    Ella Been

  2. Departmento de Estratigrafía y Paleontología, Facultad de Ciencia y Tecnología, Universidad del País Vasco/Euskal Herriko Unibertsitatea (UPV/EHU), IKERBASQUE, Basque Foundation for Science, Bilbao, Spain, Centro Mixto UCM-ISCIII de Evolución y, Comportamiento Humanos Avda. Monforte de Lemos, Leioa, Madrid, Spain

    Asier Gómez-Olivencia

  3. Departments of Anthropology and Orthopaedics and Sports Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA

    Patricia Ann Kramer

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2019 Springer Nature Switzerland AG

About this chapter

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this chapter

Shapiro, L.J., Russo, G.A. (2019). Vertebral Morphology in Hominoids II: The Lumbar Spine. In: Been, E., Gómez-Olivencia, A., Ann Kramer, P. (eds) Spinal Evolution. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-19349-2_4

Download citation

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation