Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Psychobiology of Addictions

  • Chapter
  • First Online:
Psychobiology of Behaviour

  • 1060 Accesses

Abstract

Current knowledge about the neurobiological bases of substance non-medical use can rely on a growing body of literature. Nevertheless, aspects concerning chronic intoxication, psychopathological forerunners and substance-induced damage are often discussed together with the specific features of addiction, so that it may not be clear which findings and correlated features are peculiar and specific to craving and relapse proneness and which are only collateral or transient. We have tried to review the psychopathological milestones that lead from substance use to addiction while isolating the neurobiological correlates of the general diagnostic features of addiction. Our aim has been to delineate a model that will be applicable to both chemical and non-chemical addiction, but we have also tried to separate the factors that are indispensable and crucial to the development of addiction and able to account for its characteristic relapsing course, from other aspects which on close inspection turn out to be nothing more than risk factors. The insight provided by neurobiology into the psychological dynamics of addiction represents a step forward in the global understanding of addictive behaviours, which should be the basis of standard – but most likely also individualized therapeutic interventions.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 79.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 99.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD 109.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

References

  • Akiskal HS, Hantouche EG, Allilaire J-F, Sechter D, Bourgeois M, Azorin JM, Chatenêt-Duchêne L, Lancrenon S (2003) Validating antidepressant-associated hypomania (bipolar III): a systematic comparison with spontaneous hypomania (bipolar II). J Affect Disord 73:65–74

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • APA (2000) DSM-IV-TR. Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders. American Psychiatric Association, Washington, DC

    Google Scholar 

  • APA (2013) DSM-5. Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders. American Psychiatric Association, Washington, DC

    Google Scholar 

  • Bacciardi S, Maremmani AGI, Rugani F, Pacini M, Dell'Osso L, Maremmani I (2012) Aggressive behaviour and heroin addiction. Heroin Addict Relat Clin Probl 14(4):81–84

    Google Scholar 

  • Bacciardi S, Maremmani AGI, Rovai L, Rugani F, Pani PP, Pacini M, Dell’Osso L, Akiskal HS, Maremmani I (2013) Drug (heroin) addiction, bipolar spectrum and impulse control disorders. Heroin Addict Relat Clin Probl 15(2):29–36

    Google Scholar 

  • Bale TL (2015) Epigenetic and transgenerational reprogramming of brain development. Nat Rev Neurosci 16(6):332–344. https://doi.org/10.1038/nrn3818

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bjork JM, Momenan R, Hommer DW (2009) Delay discounting correlates with proportional lateral frontal cortex volumes. Biol Psychiatry 65(8):710–713. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsych.2008.11.023

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Blum K, Werner T, Carnes S, Carnes P, Bowirrat A, Giordano J, Oscar-Berman M, Gold M (2012) Sex, drugs, and rock ‘n’ roll: hypothesizing common mesolimbic activation as a function of reward gene polymorphisms. J Psychoactive Drugs 44(1):38–55

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Chait LD (1994) Reinforcing and subjective effects of methylphenidate in humans. Behav Pharmacol 5(3):281–288

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Childress AR, McLellan AT, Ehrman R, O'Brien CP (1988) Classically conditioned responses in opioid and cocaine dependence: a role in relapse. NIDA Res Monogr 84:25–43

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Enoch MA (2011) The role of early life stress as a predictor for alcohol and drug dependence. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 214(1):17–31. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00213-010-1916-6

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Enoch MA (2012) The influence of gene-environment interactions on the development of alcoholism and drug dependence. Curr Psychiatry Rep 14(2):150–158. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11920-011-0252-9

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Franklin TR, Wang Z, Wang J, Sciortino N, Harper D, Li Y, Ehrman R, Kampman K, O'Brien CP, Detre JA, Childress AR (2007) Limbic activation to cigarette smoking cues independent of nicotine withdrawal: a perfusion fMRI study. Neuropsychopharmacology 32(11):2301–2309. https://doi.org/10.1038/sj.npp.1301371

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gaher RM, Hahn AM, Shishido H, Simons JS, Gaster S (2015) Associations between sensitivity to punishment, sensitivity to reward, and gambling. Addict Behav 42:180–184. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.addbeh.2014.11.014

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Grace AA (2000) The tonic/phasic model of dopamine system regulation and its implications for understanding alcohol and psychostimulant craving. Addiction 95(Suppl 2):S119–S128

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Heinz A, Siessmeier T, Wrase J, Hermann D, Klein S, Grusser SM, Flor H, Braus DF, Buchholz HG, Grunder G, Schreckenberger M, Smolka MN, Rosch F, Mann K, Bartenstein P (2004) Correlation between dopamine D(2) receptors in the ventral striatum and central processing of alcohol cues and craving. Am J Psychiatry 161(10):1783–1789. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.161.10.1783

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kalda A, Zharkovsky A (2015) Epigenetic mechanisms of psychostimulant-induced addiction. Int Rev Neurobiol 120:85–105. https://doi.org/10.1016/bs.irn.2015.02.010

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kalivas PW, Volkow ND (2005) The neural basis of addiction: a pathology of motivation and choice. Am J Psychiatry 162(8):1403–1413. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.162.8.1403

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Khantzian EJ (1980) An ego/self theory of substance dependence: a contemporary psychoanalitic perspective. NIDA Res Monogr 30:184–191

    Google Scholar 

  • Khantzian EJ (1985) The self-medication hypothesis of addictive disorders: focus on heroin and cocaine dependence. Am J Psychiatry 142:1259–1264

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Khantzian EJ (1997) The self-medication hypothesis of substance use disorders: a reconsideration and recent applications. Harv Rev Psychiatry 4(5):231–244. https://doi.org/10.3109/10673229709030550

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kreek MJ, Zhon Y, Schussman S (2004) Craving in opiate, cocaine and alcohol addiction. Heroin Addict Relat Clin Probl 6(2):5–52

    Google Scholar 

  • Lalive AL, Rudolph U, Luscher C, Tan KR (2011) Is there a way to curb benzodiazepine addiction. Swiss Med Wkly 141:w13277. https://doi.org/10.4414/smw.2011.13277

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lovrecic M, Lovrecic B, Dernovsek MZ, Tavcar R, Maremmani I (2004) Unreported double frequency of heroin addicts visiting psychiatric services and addiction treatment services. Heroin Addict Relat Clin Probl 6(3):27–32

    Google Scholar 

  • Maremmani I, Gerra G (2010) Buprenorphine-based regimens and methadone for the medical management of opioid dependence: Selecting the appropriate drug for treatment. Am J Addict 19(6):557–568

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Maremmani I, Pacini M (2003) Understanding the pathogenesis of drug addiction in order to implement a correct pharmacological intervention. Heroin Addict Relat Clin Probl 5(3):5–12

    Google Scholar 

  • Maremmani I, Lazzeri A, Pacini M, Lovrecic M, Placidi GF, Perugi G (2004) Diagnostic and symptomatological features in chronic psychotic patients according to cannabis use status. J Psychoactive Drugs 36(2):235–241

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Maremmani I, Pacini M, Perugi G, Deltito J, Akiskal HS (2008) Cocaine abuse and the bipolar spectrum in 1090 heroin addicts: clinical observations and a proposal of a pathophysiologic model. J Affect Disord 106:55–61

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Maremmani I, Pacini M, Popovic D, Romano A, Maremmani AG, Perugi G, Deltito J, Akiskal K, Akiskal H (2009) Affective temperaments in heroin addiction. J Affect Disord 117(3):186–192. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2009.01.007

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Maremmani I, Maremmani AGI, Rugani F, Rovai L, Pacini M, Bacciardi S, Deltito J, Dell'Osso L, Akiskal HS (2012) Clinical presentations of substance abuse in bipolar heroin addicts at time of treatment entry. Ann Gen Psychiatry 11:23

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Maremmani AGI, Rugani F, Bacciardi S, Rovai L, Pacini M, Dell'Osso L, Maremmani I (2014) Does dual diagnosis affect violence and self-harm in heroin addicts at treatment entry? J Addict Med 8(2):116–122

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Martinez D, Broft A, Foltin RW, Slifstein M, Hwang DR, Huang Y, Perez A, Frankle WG, Cooper T, Kleber HD, Fischman MW, Laruelle M (2004) Cocaine dependence and d2 receptor availability in the functional subdivisions of the striatum: relationship with cocaine-seeking behavior. Neuropsychopharmacology 29(6):1190–1202. https://doi.org/10.1038/sj.npp.1300420

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mayfield RD, Harris RA, Schuckit MA (2008) Genetic factors influencing alcohol dependence. Br J Pharmacol 154(2):275–287. https://doi.org/10.1038/bjp.2008.88

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • McClernon FJ, Kozink RV, Lutz AM, Rose JE (2009) 24-h Smoking abstinence potentiates fMRI-BOLD activation to smoking cues in cerebral cortex and dorsal striatum. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 204(1):25–35. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00213-008-1436-9

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • McGowan PO, Roth TL (2015) Epigenetic pathways through which experiences become linked with biology. Dev Psychopathol 27(2):637–648. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954579415000206

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Meyers JL, Dick DM (2010) Genetic and environmental risk factors for adolescent-onset substance use disorders. Child Adolesc Psychiatr Clin N Am 19(3):465–477. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chc.2010.03.013

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Milton AL, Lee JL, Everitt BJ (2008) Reconsolidation of appetitive memories for both natural and drug reinforcement is dependent on {beta}-adrenergic receptors. Learn Mem 15(2):88–92. https://doi.org/10.1101/lm.825008

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ouzir M, Errami M (2016) Etiological theories of addiction: a comprehensive update on neurobiological, genetic and behavioural vulnerability. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 148:59–68. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pbb.2016.06.005

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pacini M, Maremmani I (2007a) Addiction treatment: when will medical principles matter? Heroin Addict Relat Clin Probl 9(3):5–8

    Google Scholar 

  • Pacini M, Maremmani I (2007b) The need for scientifically based ethical principles in dealing with drug-addicted persons. Heroin Addict Relat Clin Probl 9(4):5–8

    Google Scholar 

  • Pacini M, Maremmani I, Vitali M, Santini P, Romeo M, Ceccanti M (2009) Affective temperaments in alcoholic patients. Alcohol 43(5):397–404. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.alcohol.2009.05.002

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pacini M, Maremmani I, Vitali M, Romeo M, Santini P, Vermeil V, Ceccanti M (2010) Cocaine abuse in 448 alcoholics: evidence for a bipolar connection. Addict Disord Treat 9(4):164–171

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pani PP, Maremmani I, Trogu E, Gessa GL, Ruiz P, Akiskal HS (2010) Delineating the psychic structure of substance abuse and addictions: should it include anxiety, mood and impulse-control dysregulation. J Affect Disord 122:185–197

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Perugi G, Frare F, Madaro D, Maremmani I, Akiskal HS (2002) Alcohol abuse in social phobic patients: is there a bipolar connection? J Affect Disord 68(1):33–39

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Placidi GF, Signoretta S, Liguori A, Gervasi R, Maremmani I, Akiskal HS (1998) The semi-structured affective temperament interview (TEMPS-I). Reliability and psychometric properties in 1010 14–26-year-old students. J Affect Disord 47(1-3):1–10

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Rovai L, Maremmani AGI, Bacciardi S, Rugani F, Pacini M, Perugi G, Dell'Osso L, Akiskal H, Maremmani I (2013) Drug addiction: affective temperaments as risk factor. Heroin Addict Relat Clin Probl 15(2):19–28

    Google Scholar 

  • Teoh SK, Mendelson JH, Mello NK, Weiss R, McElroy S, McAfee B (1990) Hyperprolactinemia and risk for relapse of cocaine abuse. Biol Psychiatry 28(9):824–828

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Volkow ND, Swanson JM (2003) Variables that affect the clinical use and abuse of methylphenidate in the treatment of ADHD. Am J Psychiatry 160(11):1909–1918. https://doi.org/10.1176/appi.ajp.160.11.1909

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Volkow ND, Fowler JS, Wang GJ, Hitzemann R, Logan J, Schlyer DJ, Dewey SL, Wolf AP (1993) Decreased dopamine D2 receptor availability is associated with reduced frontal metabolism in cocaine abusers. Synapse 14(2):169–177. https://doi.org/10.1002/syn.890140210

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Volkow ND, Wang GJ, Fowler JS, Gatley SJ, Ding YS, Logan J, Dewey SL, Hitzemann R, Lieberman J (1996) Relationship between psychostimulant-induced “high” and dopamine transporter occupancy. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 93(19):10388–10392

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Volkow ND, Wang GJ, Fowler JS, Logan J, Gatley SJ, Hitzemann R, Chen AD, Dewey SL, Pappas N (1997) Decreased striatal dopaminergic responsiveness in detoxified cocaine-dependent subjects. Nature 386(6627):830–833. https://doi.org/10.1038/386830a0

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Volkow ND, Wang GJ, Fowler JS, Hitzemann R, Gatley SJ, Dewey SS, Pappas N (1998) Enhanced sensitivity to benzodiazepines in active cocaine-abusing subjects: a PET study. Am J Psychiatry 155(2):200–206. https://doi.org/10.1176/ajp.155.2.200

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Volkow ND, Wang GJ, Fowler JS, Franceschi D, Thanos PK, Wong C, Gatley SJ, Ding YS, Molina P, Schlyer D, Alexoff D, Hitzemann R, Pappas N (2000) Cocaine abusers show a blunted response to alcohol intoxication in limbic brain regions. Life Sci 66(12):PL161–PL167

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Volkow ND, Wang G, Fowler JS, Logan J, Gerasimov M, Maynard L, Ding Y, Gatley SJ, Gifford A, Franceschi D (2001) Therapeutic doses of oral methylphenidate significantly increase extracellular dopamine in the human brain. J Neurosci 21(2):RC121

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Volkow ND, Fowler JS, Wang GJ, Swanson JM (2004) Dopamine in drug abuse and addiction: results from imaging studies and treatment implications. Mol Psychiatry 9(6):557–569. https://doi.org/10.1038/sj.mp.4001507

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Volkow ND, Wang GJ, Ma Y, Fowler JS, Wong C, Ding YS, Hitzemann R, Swanson JM, Kalivas P (2005) Activation of orbital and medial prefrontal cortex by methylphenidate in cocaine-addicted subjects but not in controls: relevance to addiction. J Neurosci 25(15):3932–3939. https://doi.org/10.1523/JNEUROSCI.0433-05.2005

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Volkow ND, Wang GJ, Telang F, Fowler JS, Logan J, Jayne M, Ma Y, Pradhan K, Wong C (2007) Profound decreases in dopamine release in striatum in detoxified alcoholics: possible orbitofrontal involvement. J Neurosci 27(46):12700–12706. https://doi.org/10.1523/JNEUROSCI.3371-07.2007

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Volkow ND, Wang GJ, Telang F, Fowler JS, Logan J, Childress AR, Jayne M, Ma Y, Wong C (2008) Dopamine increases in striatum do not elicit craving in cocaine abusers unless they are coupled with cocaine cues. Neuroimage 39(3):1266–1273. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2007.09.059

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Weiss F, Ciccocioppo R, Parsons LH, Katner S, Liu X, Zorrilla EP, Valdez GR, Ben Shahar O, Angeletti S, Richter RR (2001) Compulsive drug-seeking behavior and relapse. Neuroadaptation, stress, and conditioning factors. Ann N Y Acad Sci 937:1–26

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Wiehler A, Peters J (2014) Reward-based decision making in pathological gambling: the roles of risk and delay. Neurosci Res. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neures.2014.09.008

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zubieta JK, Gorelick DA, Stauffer R, Ravert HT, Dannals RF, Frost JJ (1996) Increased mu opioid receptor binding detected by PET in cocaine-dependent men is associated with cocaine craving. Nat Med 2(11):1225–1229

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. V.P. Dole Dual Disorder Unit, Santa Chiara University Hospital, University of Pisa, Pisa, Italy

    Icro Maremmani

  2. G. De Lisio Institute of Behavioural Sciences, Pisa, Italy

    Icro Maremmani & Matteo Pacini

  3. 3rd Department of Psychiatry, Faculty of Medicine, School of Health Sciences, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Thessaloniki, Greece

    Kostas N. Fountoulakis

Authors
  1. Icro Maremmani
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Matteo Pacini
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Kostas N. Fountoulakis
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Icro Maremmani .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. 3rd Department of Psychiatry, Faculty of Medicine, School of Health Sciences, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Thessaloniki, Greece

    Kostas N. Fountoulakis

  2. 3rd Department of Psychiatry, Faculty of Medicine, School of Health Sciences, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Thessaloniki, Greece

    Ioannis Nimatoudis

Appendix: Multiple-Choice Questions

Appendix: Multiple-Choice Questions

  1. 1.

    Craving corresponds to

    • The perception of the stimulating agent

    • The positive quality of stimulation (liking)

    • The increase of liking for experienced drugs through time

    • The abnormally urgent and overwhelming desire to stimulate oneself

  2. 2.

    The liking of a drug, which induced addiction

    • Is always stronger than that of other drugs

    • Is usually stronger and sharper

    • Becomes highest than ever once addiction has developed

    • Depends on a general reward-deficient personality

  3. 3.

    Nonaddictive craving

    • Does not exist

    • Does not actually make sense, although it is used to indicate amplified appetite for self-stimulation

    • Is the craving for nonaddictive substances

    • Is the craving for legal substances

  4. 4.

    Addiction corresponds to a brain state

    • Forerunning the first contact with the drug

    • Starting at the time of first drug use

    • Developing during drug use

    • Developing after several relapses

  5. 5.

    Addictions to different substances

    • Share a similar brain-imaging profile

    • Concern different brain areas

    • Concern different cortical areas

    • Share a similar withdrawal-related brain state

  6. 6.

    The shared ground between addictions from different substances includes

    • All of the following

    • Late withdrawal

    • Cross-reactive craving

    • Reduction of cortical inhibiting activity

  7. 7.

    The release of dopamine in the nucleus accumbens

    • Is a key effect of dopaminergic drugs

    • Is a key effect of heavy drugs

    • Is shared by all addictive stimuli

    • Is mediated by a unique specific receptor

  8. 8.

    Once addiction has established

    • The effect of the substance is no longer possible

    • The effect of the substance is amplified

    • The expectation of the effect is amplified

    • The relevance of general reward is amplified

  9. 9.

    The addictive potential of stimuli depends on

    • The mechanism of action

    • The legal status

    • The potency

    • The short latency of action

  10. 10.

    Late withdrawal

    • Is not specific of addiction

    • Is specific of addiction

    • Is predictive of relapse

    • Is a milder trail of early withdrawal

  11. 11.

    Cortical inhibitory areas

    • Are underdeveloped in subject who then become addicted

    • Are atrophic in addicted persons

    • Are inhibited by craving-related areas

    • Are not recruited effectively by addicted persons

  12. 12.

    Cueing is

    • An intense recall of appetite by drug-related memories

    • The subconscious recall of drug-related memories

    • The persistence of drug-related memories

    • The recall of affectively relevant drug-related memories

  13. 13.

    The objective of anticraving treatment is

    • To suppress the desire for the drug

    • To normalize craving to normal desire

    • To suppress the urgency to get the drug

    • To suppress the fear of withdrawal

  14. 14.

    Craving during withdrawal

    • Is basically due to the fear of withdrawal

    • Is basically due to the increase of appetition

    • Is the irresistible component of craving

    • Is the core component of craving

  15. 15.

    Non-chemical addictions

    • Are not true addictions

    • Share similar biological features with chemical addictions

    • Are not chemically mediated, but psychologically

    • Are a side aspect of certain psychiatric disorders

  16. 16.

    The psychiatric syndrome closely resembling addiction is

    • Mania

    • Depression

    • Panic

    • Personality disorders

  17. 17.

    The best fitting model of addictive diseases can be identified in

    • A general neurotransmitter deficiency

    • Subcortical plastic changes in some input areas, affecting substance effects

    • Subcortical plastic changes in some feedback areas, affecting substance-seeking behaviour

    • A cortical area

  18. 18.

    Opiate withdrawal has a relevant biological overlap with

    • Depression

    • Panic attacks

    • Mania

    • Obsessive-compulsive disorder

  19. 19.

    Relapse differs from a simple new-use episode

    • The brain reacts differently to the substance and starts back from the addictive stage

    • The substance is the same

    • Doses are higher

    • The brain is still under withdrawal when relapsing

  20. 20.

    The most effective mechanisms against craving are

    • Motivational treatment

    • Blockade of the substance’s effects

    • Direct receptor-mediated reduction of baseline craving

    • The coupling between the previous two

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2019 Springer Nature Switzerland AG

About this chapter

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this chapter

Maremmani, I., Pacini, M., Fountoulakis, K.N. (2019). Psychobiology of Addictions. In: Fountoulakis, K., Nimatoudis, I. (eds) Psychobiology of Behaviour. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-18323-3_7

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-18323-3_7

  • Published:

  • Publisher Name: Springer, Cham

  • Print ISBN: 978-3-030-18322-6

  • Online ISBN: 978-3-030-18323-3

  • eBook Packages: MedicineMedicine (R0)

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation