Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Fear in Development

  • Chapter
  • First Online:
Handbook of Emotional Development

Abstract

In this chapter, we will provide an overview of the development of fear across infancy and early childhood. First, we describe various theoretical accounts of emotion and their implications for studying fear across development. Next, we describe the perception of threat, including how infants and young children first come to recognize and differentiate a fearful face from other emotional expressions and when they begin to detect signals of threat in the environment. We then describe the developmental trajectory of fearful behavior starting with infancy. We discuss the most commonly experienced fears from infancy to adulthood and how these fears might be acquired. Finally, we describe the neurological underpinnings of fear learning throughout development and close with a few thoughts on future directions for studying fear over the life span.

Vanessa LoBue was supported by the National Institute of Mental Health grant R01MH109692, and funding from the James McDonnell Foundation, and Mauricio Delgado was supported by the McKnight Foundation in the writing of this chapter.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 229.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 299.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD 299.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

References

  • Adolph, K. E. (2000). Specificity of learning: Why infants fall over a veritable cliff. Psychological Science, 11, 290–295.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Adolph, K. E., Kretch, K. S., & LoBue, V. (2014). Fear of heights in infants? Current Directions in Psychological Science, 23, 60–66.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Adolph, K. E., Tamis-LeMonda, C. S., Ishak, S., Karasik, L. B., & Lobo, S. A. (2008). Locomotor experience and use of social information are posture specific. Developmental Psychology, 44, 1705–1714.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Adolphs, R. (2008). Fear, faces, and the human amygdala. Current Opinion in Neurobiology, 18, 166–172.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Adolphs, R., Gosselin, F., Buchanan, T. W., Tranel, D., Schyns, P., & Damasio, A. R. (2005). A mechanism for impaired fear recognition after amygdala damage. Nature, 433(7021), 68.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Anderson, A. K., Christoff, K., Panitz, D., Rosa, E. D., & Gabrieli, J. D. E. (2003). Neural correlates of the automatic processing of threat facial signals. Journal of Neuroscience, 23, 5627–5633.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Anderson, A. K., & Phelps, E. A. (2000). Expression without recognition: Contributions of the human amygdala to emotional communication. Psychological Science, 11, 106–111.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Askew, C., & Field, A. P. (2007). Vicarious learning and the development of fears in childhood. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 45, 2616–2627.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Askew, C., & Field, A. P. (2008). The vicarious learning pathway to fear 40 years on. Clinical Psychology Review, 28, 1249–1265.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Askew, C., Kessock-Philip, H., & Field, A. P. (2008). What happens when verbal threat information and vicarious learning combine? Behavioural and Cognitive Psychotherapy, 36, 491–505.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Barrera, M. E., & Maurer, D. (1981). Recognition of mother’s photographed face by the three-month-old infant. Child Development, 52, 714–716.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Barrett, L. F. (2006). Solving the emotion paradox: Categorization and the experience of emotion. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 10, 20–46.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bertenthal, B. I., Campos, J. J., & Barrett, K. C. (1984). Self-produced locomotion: An organizer of emotional, cognitive, and social development in infancy. In R. N. Emde & R. J. Harmon (Eds.), Continuities and discontinuities in development (pp. 175–210). New York, NY: Plenum Press.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Bouwmeester, H., Smits, K., & Ree, J. M. V. (2002). Neonatal development of projections to the basolateral amygdala from prefrontal and thalamic structures in rat. Journal of Comparative Neurology, 450, 241–255.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Boyer, P., & Bergstrom, B. (2011). Threat-detection in child development: An evolutionary perspective. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews, 35, 1034–1041.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Broeren, S., Lester, K. J., Muris, P., & Field, A. P. (2011). They are afraid of the animal, so therefore I am too: Influence of peer modeling on fear beliefs and approach–avoidance behaviors towards animals in typically developing children. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 49, 50–57.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bronson, G. W. (1972). Infants’ reactions to unfamiliar persons and novel objects. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 37, 1–46.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Brooker, R. J., Buss, K. A., Lemery-Chalfant, K., Aksan, N., Davidson, R. J., & Goldsmith, H. H. (2013). The development of stranger fear in infancy and toddlerhood: Normative development, individual differences, antecedents, and outcomes. Developmental Science, 16, 864–878.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brooks, J., & Lewis, M. (1976). Infants’ responses to strangers: Midget, adult, and child. Educational Testing Service, 47, 323–332.

    Google Scholar 

  • Buijzen, M., Van der Molen, J. H. W., & Sondij, P. (2007). Parental mediation of children’s emotional responses to a violent news event. Communication Research, 34, 212–230.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Buss, K. A. (2011). Which fearful toddlers should we worry about? Context, fear regulation, and anxiety risk. Developmental Psychobiology, 47, 804–819.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Buss, K. A., Davidson, R. J., Kalin, N. H., & Goldsmith, H. H. (2004). Context specific freezing and associated physiological reactivity as a dysregulated fear response. Developmental Psychology, 40, 583–594.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cahill, L., & McGaugh, J. L. (1998). Mechanisms of emotional arousal and lasting declarative memory. Trends in Neurosciences, 21, 294–299.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Callaghan, B. L., & Richardson, R. (2013). Early experiences and the development of emotional learning systems in rats. Biology of Mood & Anxiety Disorders, 127, 703.

    Google Scholar 

  • Campos, J. J., Anderson, D. I., Barbu-Roth, M. A., Hubbard, E. M., Hertenstein, M. J., & Witherington, D. (2000). Travel broadens the mind. Infancy, 1, 149–219.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Campos, J. J., Bertenthal, B. I., & Kermoian, R. (1992). Early experience and emotional development: The emergence of wariness of heights. Psychological Science, 3, 61–64.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Campos, J. J., Frankel, C. B., & Camras, L. (2004). On the nature of emotion regulation. Child Development, 75, 377–394.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Campos, J. J., Hiatt, S., Ramsay, D., Henderson, C., & Svejda, M. (1978). The emergence of fear on the visual cliff. In M. Lewis & L. Rosenblum (Eds.), The development of affect (pp. 149–182). New York, NY: Plenum Press.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Camras, L. A. (2011). Differentiation, dynamical integration, and functional emotional development. Emotion Review, 3, 138–146.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Camras, L. A., Oster, H., Bakeman, R., Meng, Z., Ujiie, T., & Campos, J. J. (2007). Do infants show distinct negative facial expressions for fear and anger? Emotional expression in 11-month-old European, American, Chinese, and Japanese infants. Infancy, 11, 131–155.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Camras, L. A., Oster, H., Campos, J. J., Miyake, K., & Bradshaw, D. (1992). Japanese and American infants’ responses to arm restraint. Developmental Psychology, 28, 578–583.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Camras, L. A., & Shutter, J. M. (2010). Emotional facial expressions in infancy. Emotion Review, 2, 120–129.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Camras, L. A., Sullivan, J., & Michel, G. (1993). Adult judgments of facial, vocal, and body actions. Journal of Nonverbal Behavior, 17, 171–186.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Casey, B. J., Jones, R. M., & Hare, T. A. (2008). The adolescent brain. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1124, 111–126.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Clore, G. L., & Ortony, A. (2000). Cognition in emotion: Never, sometimes, or always. In R. D. Lane & L. Nadel (Eds.), The cognitive neuroscience of emotion (pp. 24–61). New York, NY: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Coan, J. A. (2010). Emergent ghosts of the emotion machine. Emotion Review, 2, 274–285.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Coan, J. A., Schaefer, H. S., & Davidson, R. J. (2006). Why we hold hands: Social regulation of the neural threat response. Psychphysiology, 43, 17.

    Google Scholar 

  • Coelho, C. M., & Purkis, H. (2009). The origins of specific phobias: Influential theories and current perspectives. Review of General Psychology, 31, 335–348.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cohn, J. F., Matias, R., Tronick, E. Z., Connell, D., & Lyons-Ruth, K. (1986). Face-to-face interactions of depressed mothers and their infants. New Directions for Child and Adolescent Development, 34, 31–45.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cunningham, W. A., Dunfield, K. A., & Stillman, P. E. (2013). Emotional states from affective dynamics. Emotion Review, 5, 344–355.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cunningham, W. A., & Zelazo, P. D. (2007). Attitudes and evaluations: A social cognitive neuroscience perspective. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 11, 97–104.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cunningham, W. A., & Zelazo, P. D. (2009). The development of iterative reprocessing: Implications for affect and its regulation. In P. D. Zelazo, M. Chandler, & E. A. Crone (Eds.), Developmental social cognitive neuroscience (pp. 81–98). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.

    Google Scholar 

  • de Haan, M., Belsky, J., Reid, V., Volein, A., & Johnson, M. H. (2004). Maternal personality and infants’ neural and visual responsivity to facial expressions of emotion. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 45, 1209–1218.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Davey, G. C. L. (1997). A conditioning model of phobias. In G. C. L. Davey (Ed.), Phobias: A handbook of theory, research and treatment (pp. 301–322). Chichester, UK: Wiley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Davey, G. C. L. (2002). ‘Nonspecific’ rather than ‘nonassociative’ pathways to phobias: A commentary on Poulton and Menzies. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 40, 151–158.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Davis, F. C., Neta, M., Kim, M. J., Moran, J. M., & Whalen, P. J. (2016). Interpreting ambiguous social cues in unpredictable contexts. Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience, 11, 775–582.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Delgado, M. R., Li, J., Schiller, D., & Phelps, E. A. (2008). The role of the striatum in aversive learning and aversive prediction errors. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London B: Biological Sciences, 363(1511), 3787–3800.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Delgado, M. R., Olsson, A., & Phelps, E. A. (2006). Extending animal models of fear conditioning to humans. Biological Psychology, 73, 39–48.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dollinger, S. J., O’Donnell, J. P., & Staley, A. A. (1984). Lightning-strike disaster: Effects on children’s fears and worries. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 52, 1028–1038.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dubi, K., Rapee, R. M., Emerton, J. L., & Schniering, C. A. (2008). Maternal modeling and the acquisition of fear and avoidance in toddlers: Influence of stimulus preparedness and child temperament. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 36, 499–512.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dunsmoor, J. E., Mitroff, S. R., & LaBar, K. S. (2009). Generalization of conditioned fear along a dimension of increasing fear intensity. Learning & Memory, 16, 460–469.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dunsmoor, J. E., Prince, S. E., Murthy, V. P., Kragel, P. A., & LaBar, K. S. (2011). Neurobehavioral mechanisms of human fear generalization. NeuroImage, 55, 1878–1888.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dymond, S., Dunsmoor, J. E., Vervliet, B., Roche, B., & Hermans, D. (2015). Fear generalization in humans: Systematic review and implications for anxiety disorder research. Behavior Therapy, 46, 561–582.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ekman, P. (1993). Facial expressions of emotion: New findings, new questions. Psychological Science, 3, 34–38.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ekman, P., & Cordaro, D. (2011). What is meant by calling emotions basic. Emotion Review, 3, 364–370.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ekman, P., & Friesen, W. V. (1971). Constants across cultures in the face and emotion. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 17, 124–129.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ekman, P., & Oster, H. (1979). Facial expressions of emotion. Annual Review of Psychology, 30, 527–554.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ellis, B. H., Fisher, P. A., & Zaharie, S. (2004). Predictors of disruptive behavior, developmental delays, anxiety, and affective symptomatology among institutionally reared romanian children. Journal of the Amerian Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 43, 1283–1292.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Farroni, T., Menon, E., Rigato, S., & Johnson, M. H. (2007). The perception of facial expressions in newborns. European Journal of Developmental Psychology, 4, 2–13.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ferrari, M. (1986). Fears and phobias in childhood: Some clinical and developmental considerations. Child Psychiatry and Human Development, 17, 75–87.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Field, A. P. (2006). Is conditioning a useful framework for understanding the development and treatment of phobias? Clinical Psychology Review, 26, 857–875.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Field, A. P., & Lawson, J. (2003). Fear information and the development of fears during childhood: Effects on implicit fear responses and behavioural avoidance. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 41, 1277–1293.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Field, A. P., Lawson, J., & Banerjee, R. (2008). The verbal threat information pathway to fear in children: The longitudinal effects on fear cognitions and the immediate effects on avoidance behavior. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 117, 214–224.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Field, A. P., & Lester, K. J. (2010). Is there room for ‘development’ in developmental models of information processing biases to threat in children and adolescents? Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review, 13, 315–332.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Field, A. P., & Price-Evans, K. (2009). Temperament moderates the effect of the verbal threat information pathway on children’s heart rate responses to novel animals. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 47, 431–436.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Field, A. P., & Purkis, H. M. (2011). The role of learning in the aetiology of child and adolescent fear and anxiety. In W. K. Silverman & A. P. Field (Eds.), Anxiety disorders in children and adolescents: Research, assessment and intervention (2nd ed., pp. 227–256). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Field, A. P., & Schorah, H. (2007). The verbal information pathway to fear and heart rate changes in children. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 48, 1088–1093.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Field, A. P., & Storksen-Coulson, H. (2007). The interaction of pathways to fear in childhood anxiety: A preliminary study. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 45, 3051–3059.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Field, T. M. (1992). Infants of depressed mothers. Development and Psychopathology, 4, 49–66.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Field, T. M., Cohen, D., Garcia, R., & Greenberg, R. (1984). Mother-stranger face discrimination by the newborn. Infant Behavior and Development, 7, 19–25.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Field, T. M., Woodson, R., Greenberg, R., & Cohen, D. (1983). Facial expression by neonates. Annual Progress in Child Psychiatry and Child Development, 16, 119–125.

    Google Scholar 

  • Forrester, M. B., & Stanley, S. K. (2004). Epidemiology of spider bites in Texas, 1998–2002. Public Health, 118, 506–507.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gao, X., & Maurer, D. (2010). A happy story: Developmental changes in children’s sensitivity to facial expressions of varying intensities. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 107, 67–86.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gao, Y., Raine, A., Venables, P. H., Dawson, M. E., & Mednick, S. A. (2010). Reduced electrodermal fear conditioning from ages 3 to 8 years is associated with aggressive behavior at age 8 years. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 51, 550–558.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gee, D. G., Gabard-Durnam, L. J., Flannery, J., Goff, B., Humphreys, K. L., Telzer, E. H., … Tottenham, N. (2013). Early developmental emergence of human amygdala–prefrontal connectivity after maternal deprivation. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 110, 15638–15643, 201307893.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gee, D. G., Humphreys, K. L., Flannery, J., Goff, B., Telzer, E. H., Shapiro, M., … Tottenham, N. (2013). A developmental shift from positive to negative connectivity in human amygdala–prefrontal circuitry. Journal of Neuroscience, 33, 4584–4593.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gerull, F. C., & Rapee, R. M. (2002). Mother knows best: Effects of maternal modeling on the acquisition of fear and avoidance behavior in toddlers. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 40, 279–287.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gilmore, J. H., Shi, F., Woolson, S. L., Knickmeyer, R. C., Short, S. J., Lin, W., … Shen, D. (2012). Longitudinal development of cortical and subcortical gray matter from birth to 2 years. Cerebral Cortex, 22, 2478–2485.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Goldsmith, H. H., & Rothbart, M. K. (1999). The laboratory temperament assessment battery (Locomotor Version, Edition 3.1). Madison, WI: University of Wisconsin-Madison.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hanson, J. L., Nacewicz, B. M., Sutterer, M. J., Cayo, A. A., Schaefer, S. M., Rudolph, K. D., … Davidson, R. J. (2015). Behavioral problems after early life stress: Contributions of the hippocampus and amygdala. Biological Psychiatry, 77, 314–323.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hartley, C. A., & Phelps, E. A. (2010). Changing fear: The neurocircuitry of emotion regulation. Neuropsychopharmacology, 35, 136.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hertenstein, M. J., & Campos, J. J. (2001). Emotion regulation via maternal touch. Infancy, 2, 549–566.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hostinar, C. E., Sullivan, R. M., & Gunnar, M. R. (2014). Psychobiological mechanisms underlying the social buffering of the hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenocortical axis: A review of animal models and human studies across development. Psychological Bulletin, 140, 256–282.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Izard, C. E. (1990). Facial expressions and the regulation of emotions. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 58, 487–498.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Izard, C. E. (1994). Innate and universal facial expressions: Evidence from developmental and cross-cultural research. Psychological Bulletin, 115, 288–299.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Izard, C. E. (2007). Basic emotions, natural kinds, emotion schemas, and a new paradigm. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 2, 260–280.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Izard, C. E., Heubner, R. R., Risser, D., McGinnes, G. C., & Dougherty, L. M. (1980). The young infants’ ability to produce discrete emotion expressions. Developmental Psychology, 16, 132–140.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Janak, P. H., & Tye, K. M. (2015). From circuits to behavior in the amygdala. Nature, 517(7534), 284–292.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kagan, J. (1988). The idea of emotion in human development. In C. E. Izard, J. Kagan, & R. B. Zajonc (Eds.), Emotions, cognition, and behavior (p. 38). Cambridge, MA: Cambridge University.

    Google Scholar 

  • Karasik, L. B., Tamis-LeMonda, C. S., & Adolph, K. E. (2016). Decisions at the brink: Locomotor experience affects infants’ use of social information on an adjustable drop-off. Frontiers in Psychology, 7, 797.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kasturiratne, A., Wickremasinghe, A. R., de Silva, N., Gunawardena, N. K., Pathmeswaran, A., Premaratna, R., … de Silva, H. J. (2008). The global burden of snakebite: A literature analysis and modeling based on regional estimates of envenoming and deaths. PLoS Medicine, 5(11), e218, 1591–e218, 1604.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Keltner, D., & Gross, J. J. (1999). Functional accounts of emotions. Cognition & Emotion, 13, 467–480.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kim, M. J., & Whalen, P. J. (2009). The structural integrity of an amygdala-prefrontal pathway predicts trait anxiety. Journal of Neuroscience, 29, 11614–11618.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • King, N. J., Eleonora, G., & Ollendick, T. H. (1998). Etiology of childhood phobias: Current status of Rachman’s three pathways theory. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 36, 297–309.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kleinknecht, R. A. (2002). Comments on: Non-associative fear acquisition: A review of the evidence from retrospective and longitudinal research. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 40, 159–163.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Klinnert, M. D. (1984). The regulation of infant behavior by maternal facial expression. Infant Behavior and Development, 7, 447–465.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Koster, E. H. W., Crombez, G., Van Damme, S., Verschuere, B., & De Houwer, J. (2004). Does imminent threat capture and hold attention? Emotion, 4, 312–317.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kotsoni, E., de Haan, M., & Johnson, M. H. (2001). Categorical perception of facial expressions by 7-month-old infants. Perception, 30, 1115–1125.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kretch, K. S., & Adolph, K. E. (2013). Cliff or step? Posture-specific learning at the edge of a drop-off. Child Development, 84, 226–240.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kretch, K. S., Franchak, J. M., & Adolph, K. E. (2014). Crawling and walking infants see the world differently. Child Development, 85, 1503–1518.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Krol, K. M., Monakhov, M., San Lai, P., Ebstein, R. P., & Grossmann, T. (2015). Genetic variation in CD38 and breastfeeding experience interact to impact infants’ attention to social eye cues. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 112, E5434–E5442.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • LaBar, K. S., Gatenby, J. C., Gore, J. C., LeDoux, J. E., & Phelps, E. A. (1998). Human amygdala activation during conditioned fear aquisition and extinction: A mixed-trial fMRI study. Neuron, 20, 937–945.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lang, P. J. (1968). Fear reduction and fear behavior: Problems in treating a construct. In J. M. Schlien (Ed.), Research in psychotherapy (Vol. 3, pp. 90–103). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Lang, P. J., Davis, M., & Öhman, A. (2000). Fear and anxiety: Animal models and human cognitive psychophysiology. Journal of Affective Disorders, 61, 137–159.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lau, J. Y., Britton, J. C., Nelson, E. E., Angold, A., Ernst, M., Goldwin, M., … Pine, D. S. (2011). Distinct neural signatures of threat learning in adolescents and adults. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 108, 4500–4505.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lazarus, R. (1994). The stable and the unstable in emotion. In P. Ekman & R. J. Davidson (Eds.), The nature of emotion: Fundamental questions (pp. 79–85). Oxford, NY: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lazarus, R. S. (1991). Emotion and adaptation. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • LeDoux, J. (2012). Rethinking the emotional brain. Neuron, 73, 653–676.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Leppänen, J., Peltola, M. J., Mäntymaa, M., Koivuluoma, M., Salminen, A., & Puura, K. (2010). Cardiac and behavioral evidence for emotional influences on attention in 7-month-old infants. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 34, 547–553.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Leppänen, J. M., Moulson, M. C., Vogel-Farley, V. K., & Nelson, C. A. (2007). An ERP study of emotional face processing in the adult and infant brain. Child Development, 78, 232–245.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lewis, M. (2013). The rise of consciousness and the development of emotional life. New York, NY: The Guilford Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lewis, M., Brooks, J., & Haviland, J. (1978). Hearts and faces: A study in the measurement of emotion. In M. Lewis & L. A. Rosenblum (Eds.), The development of affect (pp. 77–123). Springer. Boston, MA.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lewis, M., & Douglas, L. (1998). A dynamic systems approach to cognition-emotion interactions in development. In M. F. Mascolo & S. Griffin (Eds.), What develops in emotional development (pp. 159–188). New York, NY: Plenum Press.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Lewis, M., & Rosenblum, L. A. (1974). Introduction: The origins of fear. In M. Lewis & L. A. Rosenblum (Eds.), The origins of behavior (Vol. 2, pp. 1–10). New York, NY: Wiley.

    Google Scholar 

  • LoBue, V. (2009). More than just a face in the crowd: Detection of emotional facial expressions in young children and adults. Developmental Science, 12, 305–313.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • LoBue, V. (2010a). And along came a spider: Superior detection of spiders in children and adults. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 107, 59–66.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • LoBue, V. (2010b). What’s so scary about needles and knives? Examining the role of experience in threat detection. Cognition and Emotion, 24, 80–87.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • LoBue, V. (2013). What are we so afraid of? How early attention shapes our most common fears. Child Development Perspectives, 7, 38–42.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • LoBue, V. (2014). Deconstructing the snake: The relative roles of perception, cognition, and emotion on threat detection. Emotion, 14, 701–711.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • LoBue, V. (2016). When is a face no longer a face? A problematic dichotomy in visual detection research. Emotion Review, 8, 250–257.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • LoBue, V., & Adolph, K. E. (2019, in press). Fear in infancy: Lessons from strangers, heights, snakes, spiders, and other scary stuff. Developmental Psychology.

    Google Scholar 

  • LoBue, V., Buss, K. A., Taber-Thomas, B. C., & Pérez-Edgar, K. (2017). Developmental differences in infants’ attention to social and non-social threats. Infancy, 22, 403–415.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • LoBue, V., & DeLoache, J. S. (2008). Detecting the snake in the grass: Attention to fear relevant stimuli by adults and young children. Psychological Science, 19, 284–289.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • LoBue, V., & DeLoache, J. S. (2010). Superior detection of threat-relevant stimuli in infancy. Developmental Science, 13, 221–228.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • LoBue, V., & DeLoache, J. S. (2011). What so special about slithering serpents? Children and adults rapidly detect snakes based on their simple features. Visual Cognition, 19, 129–143.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • LoBue, V., & Larson, C. L. (2010). What makes angry faces look so…angry? Examining visual attention to the shape of threat in children and adults. Visual Cognition, 18, 1165–1178.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • LoBue, V., & Pérez-Edgar, K. (2014). Sensitivity to social and non-social threats in temperamentally shy children at-risk for anxiety. Developmental Science, 17, 239–247.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • LoBue, V., & Rakison, D. (2013). What we fear most: A developmental advantage for threat-relevant stimuli. Developmental Review, 33, 285–303.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • LoBue, V., Rakison, D., & DeLoache, J. S. (2010). Threat perception across the lifespan: Evidence for multiple converging pathways. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 19, 375–379.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Malatesta, C. Z., & Haviland, J. M. (1982). Learning display rules: The socialization of emotion expression in infancy. Child Development, 53, 991–1003.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Marks, I. (2002). Innate and learned fears are at opposite ends of a continuum of associability. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 40, 165–167.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Marks, I. M. (1987). Fears, phobias, and rituals. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Marks, I. M., & Nesse, R. M. (1994). Fear and fitness: An evolutionary analyses of anxiety disorders. Ethology and Sociobiology, 15, 247–261.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Masten, C. L., Telzer, E. H., Fuligni, A. J., Lieberman, M. D., & Eisenberger, N. I. (2012). Time spent with friends in adolescence relates to less neural sensitivity to later peer rejection. Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience, 7, 106–114.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McNally, R. J. (2002). On nonassociative fear emergence. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 40, 169–172.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Meiser-Stedman, R. (2002). Towards a cognitive-behavioral model of PTSD in children and adolescents. Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review, 5, 217–232.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Meiser-Stedman, R., Smith, P., Glucksman, E., Yule, W., & Dalgleish, T. (2008). The posttraumatic stress disorder diagnosis in preschool- and elementary school-age children exposed to motor vehicle accidents. American Journal of Psychiatry, 165, 1326–1337.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Menzies, R. G., & Clarke, J. C. (1995). The etiology of phobias: A nonassociative account. Clinical Psychology Review, 15, 23–48.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Merckelbach, H., Muris, P., & Schouten, E. (1996). Pathways to fear in spider phobic children. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 34, 935–938.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Milders, M., Sahraie, S., Logan, S., & Donnellon, N. (2006). Awareness of faces is modulated by their emotional meaning. Emotion, 6, 10–17.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mineka, S., & Zinbarg, R. (2006). A contemporary learning theory perspective on the etiology of anxiety disorders: it’s not what you thought it was. American Psychologist, 61(1), 10.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Morales, S., Fu, X., & Pérez-Edgar, K. E. (2016). A developmental neuroscience perspective on affect-biased attention. Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience, 21, 26–41.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mumme, D. L., & Fernald, A. (2003). The infant as onlooker: Learning from emotional reactions observed in a television scenario. Child Development, 74, 221–237.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mumme, D. L., Fernald, A., & Herrera, C. (1996). Infants’ responses to facial and vocal emotional signals in a social referencing paradigm. Child Development, 67, 3219–3237.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Muris, P., Bodden, D., Merckelbach, H., Ollendick, T. H., & King, N. (2003). Fear of the beast: A prospective study on the effects of negative information on childhood fear. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 41, 195–208.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Muris, P., & Field, A. P. (2010). The role of verbal threat information in the development of childhood fear. “Beware the Jabberwock!”. Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review, 13, 129–150.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Muris, P., & Field, A. P. (2011). The normal development of fear in children and adolescents. In W. K. Silverman & A. P. Field (Eds.), Anxiety disorders in children and adolescents: Research, assessment and intervention (2nd ed., pp. 76–89). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Muris, P., Merckelbach, H., de Jong, P. J., & Ollendick, T. H. (2002). The etiology of specific fears and phobias in children: A critique of the non-associative account. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 40, 185–195.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Muris, P., Merckelbach, H., Gadet, B., & Moulaert, V. (2000). Fears, worries, and scary dreams in 4-to 12-year-old children: Their content, developmental pattern, and origins. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 29, 43–52.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Nelson, C. A., & De Haan, M. (1996). Neural correlates of infants’ visual responsiveness to facial expressions of emotion. Developmental Psychobiology, 29, 577–595.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Nelson, C. A., Morse, P. A., & Leavitt, L. A. (1979). Recognition of facial expressions by seven-month-old infants. Child Development, 50, 1239–1242.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Nesse, R. M., Curtis, G. C., Thyer, B. A., McCann, D. S., Huber-Smith, M. J., & Knopf, R. F. (1985). Endocrine and cardiovascular responses during phobic anxiety. Psychosomatic Medicine, 47, 320–332.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Neta, M., Cantelon, J., Haga, Z., Mahoney, C. R., Taylor, H. A., & Davis, F. C. (2017). The impact of uncertain threat on affective bias: Individual differences in response to ambiguity. Emotion, 17, 1137.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ochsner, K. N., & Gross, J. J. (2005). The cognitive control of emotion. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 9(5), 242–249.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ollendick, T. H. (1983). Reliability and validity of the revised fear survey schedule for children (FSSC-R). Behaviour Research and Therapy, 21, 685–692.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ollendick, T. H., & King, N. J. (1991). Origins of childhood fears: An evaluation of Rachman’s theory of fear acquisition. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 29, 117–123.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ollendick, T. H., Yang, B., Dong, Q., Xia, Y., & Lin, L. (1995). Perceptions of fear in other children and adolescents: The role of gender and friendship status. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 23, 439–452.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Olsson, A., Nearing, K. I., & Phelps, E. A. (2007). Learning fears by observing others: The neural systems of social fear transmission. Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience, 2, 3–11.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Oster, H., Hegley, D., & Negel, L. (1992). Adult judgments and fine-grained analysis of infant facial expressions: Testing the validity of a priori coding formulas. Developmental Psychology, 28, 1115–1131.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Öhman, A., Dimberg, U., & Öst, L. G. (1985). Animal and social phobias: Biological constraints on learned fear responses. In S. Reiss & R. R. Bootzin (Eds.), Theoretical issues in behavior therapy. Orlando, FL: Academic Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Öhman, A., Flykt, A., & Esteves, F. (2001). Emotion drives attention: Detecting the snake in the grass. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 13, 466–478.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Öhman, A., Lundqvist, D., & Esteves, F. (2001). The face in the crowd revisited: An anger superiority effect with schematic faces. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 80, 381–396.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Öhman, A., & Mineka, S. (2001). Fears, phobias, and preparedness: Toward and evolved module of fear and fear learning. Psychological Review, 108, 483–522.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Panksepp, J. (2007). Neurologizing the psychology of affects: How appraisal-based constructivism and basic emotion theory can coexist. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 2, 281–296.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Panksepp, J. (2008). The affective brain and core consciousness: How does neural activity generate emotional feelings. In M. Lewis, J. M. Haviland-Jones, & L. F. Barrett (Eds.), Handbook of emotions (3rd ed., pp. 47–67). New York, NY: Guildord Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Peltola, M. J., Leppänen, J. M., Mäki, S., & Hietanen, J. K. (2009). Emergence of enhanced attention to fearful faces between 5 and 7 months of age. Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience, 4, 134–142.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Peltola, M. J., Leppänen, J. M., Palokangas, T., & Hietanen, J. K. (2008). Fearful faces modulate looking duration and attention disengagement in 7-month-old infants. Developmental Science, 11, 60–68.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Peltola, M. J., Leppänen, J. M., Vogel-Farley, V. K., Hietanen, J. K., & Nelson, C. A. (2009). Fearful faces but not fearful eyes alone delay attention disengagement in 7-month-old infants. Emotion, 9, 560–565.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pérez-Edgar, K., Bar-Haim, Y., McDermott, J. M., Chronis-Tuscano, A., Pine, D. S., & Fox, N. A. (2010). Attention biases to threat and behavioral inhibition in early childhood shape adolescent social withdrawal. Emotion, 10, 349–357.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pérez-Edgar, K., Morales, S., LoBue, V., Taber-Thomas, B. C., Allen, K. M., Brown, K. M., & Buss, K. A. (2017). The impact of negative affect on attention patterns to threat across the first two years of life. Developmental Psychology, 53, 2219–2232.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pérez-Edgar, K., Reeb-Sutherland, B. C., McDermott, J. M., White, L. K., Henderson, H. A., Degnan, K. A., … Fox, N. A. (2011). Attention biases to threat link behavioral inhibition to social withdrawal over time in very young children. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 39, 885–895.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Phelps, E. A., Delgado, M. R., Nearing, K. I., & LeDoux, J. E. (2004). Extinction learning in humans: Role of the amygdala and vmPFC. Neuron, 43, 897–905.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Phelps, E. A., & LeDoux, J. E. (2005). Contributions of the amygdala to emotion process: From animal models to human behavior. Neuron, 48, 175–187.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Phelps, E. A., O’Connor, K. J., Gatenby, J. C., Gore, J. C., Grillon, C., & Davis, M. (2001). Activation of the left amygdala to a cognitive representation of fear. Nature Neuroscience, 4, 437.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Poulton, R., Davies, S., Menzies, R. G., Langley, J. D., & Silva, P. A. (1998). Evidence for a non-associative model of the acquisition of a fear of heights. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 36, 537–544.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Poulton, R., & Menzies, R. G. (2002). Non-associative fear-acquisition: A review of the evidence form retrospective and longitudinal research. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 40, 127–149.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Price-Evans, K., & Field, A. P. (2008). A neglectful parenting style moderates the effect of the verbal threat information pathway on children’s heart rate responses to novel animals. Behavioural and Cognitive Psychotherapy, 36, 473–482.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Purkis, H. M., & Lipp, O. V. (2009). Are snakes and spiders special? Acquisition of negative valence and modified attentional processing by non-fear-relevant animal stimuli. Cognition & Emotion, 23, 430–452.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rachman, S. J. (1977). The conditioning theory of fear acquisition: A critical examination. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 15, 375–387.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rachman, S. J. (2002). Fears born and bred: Non-associative fear acquisition? Behaviour Research and Therapy, 40, 121–126.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Reissland, N., Francis, B., Mason, J., & Lincoln, K. (2011). Do facial expressions develop before birth? PLoS One, 6, e24081.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Reynolds, G., Askew, C., & Field, A. P. (2018). Behavioral inhibition and the associative learning of fear. In Behavioral inhibition (pp. 263–282). Cham, Switzerland: Springer.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Ricciuti, H. (1974). Fear and the development of social attachment in the first year of life. In M. Lewis & L. A. Rosenblum (Eds.), The origins of fear (Vol. 2, pp. 73–106). New York, NY: Wiley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Roozendaal, B., McReynolds, J. R., Zee, E. A. V. d., Lee, S., McGaugh, J. L., & McIntyre, C. K. (2009). Glucocorticoid effects on memory consolidation depend on functional interactions between the medial prefrontal cortex and basolateral amygdala. Journal of Neuroscience, 29, 14299–14308.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Saarni, C., Campos, J. J., Camras, L. A., & Witherington, D. (2006). Emotional development: Action, communication, and understanding. In N. Einsenberg (Ed.), Handbook of child psychology. Vol. 3. Social, emotional, and personality development (6th ed., pp. 226–299). New York, NY: Wiley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schiller, D., & Delgado, M. R. (2010). Overlapping neural systems mediating extinction, reversal and regulation of fear. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 14, 268–276.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schiller, D., Levy, I., Niv, Y., LeDoux, J. E., & Phelps, E. A. (2008). From fear to safety and back: Reversal of fear in the human brain. Journal of Neuroscience, 28, 11517–11525.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schwartz, G. M., Izard, C. E., & Ansul, S. E. (1985). The 5-month-old’s ability to discriminate facial expressions of emotion. Infant Behavior and Development, 8, 65–77.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Seligman, M. (1971). Phobias and preparedness. Behavior Therapy, 2, 307–320.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Serrano, J. M., Iglesias, J., & Loeches, A. (1992). Visual discrimination and recognition of facial expressions of anger, fear, and surprise in 4-to 6-month-old infants. Developmental Psychobiology, 25, 411–425.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Silvers, J. A., Insel, C., Powers, A., Franz, P., Helion, C., Martin, R. E., … Ochsner, K. N. (2017). vlPFC–vmPFC–amygdala interactions underlie age-related differences in cognitive regulation of emotion. Cerebral Cortex, 27, 3502–3514.

    Google Scholar 

  • Slater, A. M., & Quinn, P. C. (2012). Developmental psychology: Revisiting the classic studies. London, UK: Sage Publications.

    Google Scholar 

  • Smith, P. K. (1974). Social and situational determinants of fear in the playground. In M. Lewis & L. A. Rosenblum (Eds.), The origins of fear (Vol. 2, pp. 107–129). New York, NY: Wiley.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sorce, J. F., Emde, R. N., Campos, J. J., & Klinnert, M. D. (1985). Maternal emotional signaling: Its effect on the visual cliff behavior of 1-year-olds. Developmental Psychology, 21, 195.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sroufe, L. A. (1997). Emotional development: The organization of emotional life in the early years. Cambridge, MA: Cambridge University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Swanson, L. W., & Petrovich, G. D. (1998). What is the amygdala? Trends in Neurosciences, 22, 207.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tamis-LeMonda, C. S., Adolph, K. E., Lobo, S. A., Karasik, L. B., Ishak, S., & Dimitropoulou, K. A. (2008). When infants take mothers’ advice: 18-month-olds integrate perceptual and social information to guide motor action. Developmental Psychology, 44, 734–746.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Thomas, K. M., Drevets, W. C., Whalen, P. J., Eccard, C. H., Dahl, R. E., Ryan, N. D., & Casey, B. J. (2001). Amygdala response to facial expressions in children and adults. Biological Psychiatry, 49, 309–316.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Thomas, L. A., De Bellis, M. D., Graham, R., & LaBar, K. S. (2007). Development of emotional facial recognition in late childhood and adolescence. Developmental Science, 10, 547–558.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Thrasher, C., & LoBue, V. (2016). Do infants find snakes aversive? Infants’ physiological responses to “fear-relevant” stimuli. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 142, 382–390.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tottenham, N. (2015). Social scaffolding of human amygdala-mPFCcircuit development. Social Neuroscience, 10, 489–499.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tottenham, N., & Gabard-Durnam, L. J. (2017). The developing amygdala: A student of the world and a teacher of the cortex. Current Opinion in Neurobiology, 17, 55–60.

    Google Scholar 

  • Trickey, D., Siddaway, A. P., Meiser-Stedman, R., Serpell, L., & Field, A. P. (2012). A meta-analysis of risk factors for post-traumatic stress disorder in children and adolescents. Clinical Psychology Review, 32, 122–138.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ueno, M., Uchiyama, I., Campos, J. J., Dahl, A., & Anderson, D. I. (2011). The organization of wariness of heights in experienced crawlers. Infancy, 17, 376–392.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Urry, H. L., Reekum, C. M. V., Johnstone, T., Kalin, N. H., Thurow, M. E., Schaefer, H. S., … Davidson, R. J. (2006). Amygdala and ventromedial prefrontal cortex are inversely coupled during regulation of negative affect and predict the diurnal pattern of cortisol secretion among older adults. Journal of Neuroscience, 26, 4415–4425.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Vaish, A., Grossmann, T., & Woodward, A. (2008). Not all emotions are created equal: The negativity bias in social-emotional development. Psychological Bulletin, 134, 383–403.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Watson, J. B., & Rayner, R. (1920). Conditioned emotional reactions. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 3, 1–14.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Westenberg, P., Drewes, M. J., Goedhart, A. W., Siebelink, B. M., & Treffers, P. D. (2004). A developmental analysis of self-reported fears in late childhood through mid-adolescence: Social-evaluative fears on the rise? Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 45, 481–495.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Widen, S. C. (2013). Children’s interpretation of facial expressions: The long path from valence-based to specific discrete categories. Emotion Review, 5, 72–77.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Widen, S. C., & Russell, J. A. (2003). A closer look at preschoolers’ freely produced labels for facial expressions. Developmental Psychology, 39, 114–128.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Widen, S. C., & Russell, J. A. (2008). Children acquire emotion categories gradually. Cognitive Development, 23, 291–312.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Witherington, D. C., & Crichton, J. A. (2007). Frameworks for understanding emotions and their development: Functionalist and dynamic systems approaches. Emotion, 7, 628–637.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Young-Browne, G., Rosenfeld, H. M., & Horowitz, F. D. (1977). Infant discrimination of facial expressions. Child Development, 48, 555–562.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Yule, W., Udwin, O., & Murdoch, K. (1990). The ‘Jupiter’ sinking: Effects in children’s fears, depression and anxiety. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 31, 1051–1061.

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Psychology, Rutgers University—Newark, Newark, NJ, USA

    Vanessa LoBue, Emily Kim & Mauricio Delgado

Authors
  1. Vanessa LoBue
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Emily Kim
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Mauricio Delgado
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Vanessa LoBue .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Psychology, Rutgers University—Newark, Newark, NJ, USA

    Vanessa LoBue

  2. Department of Psychology, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, USA

    Koraly Pérez-Edgar

  3. Department of Psychology, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA, USA

    Kristin A. Buss

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2019 Springer Nature Switzerland AG

About this chapter

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this chapter

LoBue, V., Kim, E., Delgado, M. (2019). Fear in Development. In: LoBue, V., Pérez-Edgar, K., Buss, K.A. (eds) Handbook of Emotional Development. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-17332-6_11

Download citation

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation