Skip to main content

Cancer Health Disparities

  • Chapter
  • First Online:
Fundamentals of Cancer Prevention

Abstract

Despite great improvements in the health and health outcomes of the overall US population, certain subgroups do not experience these same improvements and thus have disproportionate health outcomes compared to other groups. This phenomenon is known as health disparities. Disparities in cancer and cancer-related outcomes are also experienced by these various groups. This chapter discusses the disparities among five specific cancer sites (female breast, cervical, colorectal, prostate, and lung cancers), outlines potential causes of these cancer health disparities, and highlights effective strategies for reducing and eliminating them.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 99.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 129.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD 199.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

References

  • Adams-Campbell LL, Makambi KH, Frederick WA, Gaskins M, Dewitty RL, McCaskill-Stevens W (2009) Breast cancer risk assessments comparing Gail and CARE models in African-American women. Breast J 15(Suppl 1):S72–S75

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Adler NE, Rehkopf DH (2008) U.S. disparities in health: descriptions, causes, and mechanisms. Annu Rev Public Health 29:235–252

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Agalliu I, Gern R, Leanza S, Burk RD (2009) Associations of high-grade prostate cancer with BRCA1 and BRCA2 founder mutations. Clin Cancer Res 15(3):1112–1120

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality 2016 National healthcare quality and disparities report. Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality, Rockville, p 2016

    Google Scholar 

  • Agho AO, Lewis MA (2001) Correlates of actual and perceived knowledge of prostate cancer among African Americans. Cancer Nurs 24(3):165–171

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Akers AY, Newmann SJ, Smith JS (2007) Factors underlying disparities in cervical cancer incidence, screening, and treatment in the United States. Curr Probl Cancer 31:157–181

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Alberg AJ, Ford JG, Samet JM (2007) American College of Chest Physicians. Epidemiology of lung cancer: ACCP evidence-based clinical practice guidelines (2nd edition). Chest 132(3 Suppl):29S–55S

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Alexander LA, Trinidad DR, Sakuma KL, Pokhrel P, Herzog TA, Clanton MS et al (2016) Why we must continue to investigate menthol's role in the African American smoking paradox. Nicotine Tob Res 18(Suppl 1):S91–S101

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Allicock M, Graves N, Gray K, Troester MA (2013) African American women’s perspective on breast cancer: implications for communicating risk of basal-like breast cancer. J Health Care Poor Underserved 24(2):753–767

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • American Cancer Society (2015) Cancer facts & figures for Hispanics/Latinos, 2015-2017. American Cancer Society, Atlanta

    Google Scholar 

  • American Cancer Society (2016) Cancer facts & figures for African Americans 2016–2018. American Cancer Society, Atlanta

    Google Scholar 

  • American Cancer Society (2017a) Cancer facts & figures 2017. American Cancer Society, Atlanta

    Google Scholar 

  • American Cancer Society (2017b) Cancer prevention & early detection facts & figures 2017-2018. American Cancer Society, Atlanta

    Google Scholar 

  • American Cancer Society. Cervical Cancer. 2017c. https://www.cancer.org/cancer/cervical-cancer.html. Accessed 27 July 2017

  • American Cancer Society (2017d) Colorectal cancer facts & figures 2017–2019. American Cancer Society, Atlanta

    Google Scholar 

  • American Public Health Association. Community health workers. 2017. https://www.apha.org/apha-communities/member-sections/community-health-workers. Accessed 24 Oct 2017

  • Amundadottir LT, Sulem P, Gudmundsson J, Helgason A, Baker A, Agnarsson BA et al (2006) A common variant associated with prostate cancer in European and African populations. Nat Genet 38(6):652–658

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Anderson SJ (2011) Menthol cigarettes and smoking cessation behaviour: a review of tobacco industry documents. Tob Control 20(Suppl 2):ii49–ii56

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Andriole GL, Crawford ED, Grubb RL, Buys SS, Chia D, Church TR et al (2009) Mortality results from a randomized prostate-cancer screening trial. N Engl J Med 360(13):1310–1319

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Anhang Price R, Zapka J, Edwards H, Taplin SH (2010) Organizational factors and the cancer screening process. J Natl Cancer Inst Monogr 40:38–57

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ard JD, Carter-Edwards L, Svetkey LP (2003) A new model for developing and executing culturally appropriate behavior modification clinical trials for African Americans. Ethn Dis 13(2):279–285

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Armstrong K, Micco E, Carney A, Stopfer J, Putt M (2005) Racial differences in the use of BRCA1/2 testing among women with a family history of breast or ovarian cancer. JAMA 293(14):1729–1736

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Armstrong K, Putt M, Halbert CH, Grande D, Schwartz JS, Liao K et al (2013) Prior experiences of racial discrimination and racial differences in health care system distrust. Med Care 51(2):144–150

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Bach PB, Cramer LD, Warren JL, Begg CB (1999) Racial differences in the treatment of early-stage lung cancer. N Engl J Med 341:1198–1205

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Baldwin D (1996) A model for describing low-income African American women’s participation in breast and cervical cancer early detection and screening. ANS Adv Nurs Sci 19(2):27–42

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bandera EV, Maskarinec G, Romieu I, John EM (2015) Racial and ethnic disparities in the impact of obesity on breast cancer risk and survival: a global perspective. Adv Nutr 6(6):803–819

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Baquet CR, Mishra SI, Commiskey P, Ellison GL, DeShields M (2008) Breast cancer epidemiology in blacks and whites: disparities in incidence, mortality, survival rates and histology. J Natl Med Assoc 100(5):480–488

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Barber KR, Shaw R, Folts M, Taylor DK, Ryan A, Hughes M et al (1998) Differences between African American and Caucasian men participating in a community-based prostate cancer screening program. J Community Health 23(6):441–451

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Barnett JC, Vornovitsky MS (2016) Current population reports, P60-257(RV), health insurance coverage in the United States: 2015. U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, DC

    Google Scholar 

  • Bartlett D (1999) The new health care consumer. J Health Care Finance 25(3):44–51

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Battaglia TA, Santana MC, Bak S, Gokhale M, Lash TL, Ash AS et al (2010) Predictors of timely follow-up after abnormal cancer screening among women seeking care at urban community health centers. Cancer 116(4):913–921

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ben Q, An W, Jiang Y, Zhan X, Du Y, Cai QC et al (2012) Body mass index increases risk for colorectal adenomas based on meta-analysis. Gastroenterology 142:762–772

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Benard VB, Lawson HW, Eheman CR, Anderson C, Helsel W (2005) Adherence to guidelines for follow-up of low-grade cytologic abnormalities among medically underserved women. Obstet Gynecol 105:1323–1328

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Benjamin EJ, Blaha MJ, Chiuve SE, Cushman M, Das SR, Deo R et al (2017) Heart disease and stroke statistics-2017 update: a report from the American Heart Association. Circulation 135(10):e146–e603

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Bennett CL, Ferreira MR, Davis TC, Kaplan J, Weinberger M, Kuzel T et al (1998) Relation between literacy, race, and stage of presentation among low-income patients with prostate cancer. J Clin Oncol 16(9):3101–3104

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bennett KJ, Probst JC, Bellinger JD (2012) Receipt of cancer screening services: surprising results for some rural minorities. J Rural Health 28:63–72

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Berg WA, Blume JD, Cormack JB et al (2008) Combined screening with ultrasound and mammography vs. mammography alone in women at elevated risk of breast cancer. JAMA 299(18):2151–2163

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Bharel M, Santiago ER, Forgione SN, Leon CK, Weinreb L (2015) Eliminating health disparities: innovative methods to improve cervical cancer screening in a medically underserved population. Am J Public Health 105:S438–S442

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Blackley D, Behringer B, Zheng S (2012) Cancer mortality rates in Appalachia: descriptive epidemiology and an approach to explaining differences in outcomes. J Community Health 37:804–813

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Blake KD, Ottenbacher AJ, Finney Rutten LJ, Grady MA, Kobrin SC, Jacobson RM et al (2015) Predictors of Human Papillomavirus awareness and knowledge in 2013: gaps and opportunities for targeted communication strategies. Am J Prev Med 48(4):402–410

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Bondy ML, Newman LA (2003) Breast cancer risk assessment models: applicability to African-American women. Cancer 97(1 Suppl):230–235

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Braveman P, Gruskin S (2003) Defining equity in health. J Epidemiol Community Health 57:254–258

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Brott A, Dougherty A, Williams ST, Matope JH, Fadich A, Taddelle M (2011) The economic burden shouldered by public and private entities as a consequence of health disparities between men and women. Am J Mens Health 5(6):528–539

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Brown JC, Winters-Stone K, Lee A, Schmitz KH (2012) Cancer, physical activity, and exercise. Compr Physiol 2(4):2775–2809

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Bulatao RA, Anderson NB (2004) Understanding racial differences in health in late life: a research agenda. National Academy Press, Washington, DC

    Google Scholar 

  • Cain J, Denny L, Ngan HY (2007) Overcoming barriers to the eradication of cervical cancer: women’s health and rights. Int J Gynaecol Obstet 97:232–234

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Carcaise-Edinboro P, Bradley CJ (2008) Influence of patient provider communication on colorectal cancer screening. Med Care 46:738–745

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Carey LA, Perou CM, Livasy CA, Dressler LG, Cowan D, Conway K et al (2006) Race, breast cancer subtypes, and survival in the Carolina Breast Cancer Study. JAMA 295(21):2492–2502

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Carter-Pokras O, Banquet C (2002) What is a “health disparity”? Public Health Rep 117:426–434

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Carter-Pokras OD, Offutt-Powell TN, Kaufman JS, Giles WH, Mays VM (2012) Epidemiology, policy, and racial/ethnic minority health disparities. Ann Epidemiol 22:446–455

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Cates JR, Brewer NT, Fazekas KI, Mitchell CE, Smith JS (2009) Racial differences in HPV knowledge, HPV vaccine acceptability, and related beliefs among rural, southern women. J Rural Health 25(1):93–97

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cegala DJ, McClure L, Marinella TM, Post DM (2000) The effects of communication skills training on patients’ participation during medical interviews. Patient Educ Couns 41:209–222

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (2013a) CDC health disparities and inequalities report-United States, 2013. MMWR 62(Suppl 3)

    Google Scholar 

  • Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (2013b) Vital Signs: colorectal cancer screening test use: United States, 2012. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 62(44):881–888

    Google Scholar 

  • Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Breast cancer rates by race and ethnicity. 2016a. https://www.cdc.gov/cancer/breast/statistics/race.htm. Accessed 20 Oct 2017

  • Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Human papillomavirus (HPV) vaccination coverage among adolescents 13-17 years by state, HHS region, and the United States, National Immunization Survey-Teen (NIS-Teen), 2015. 2016b. https://www.cdc.gov/vaccines/imz-managers/coverage/teenvaxview/data-reports/hpv/dashboard/2015.html. Accessed 28 July 2017

  • Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Leading causes of death in females, 2014. 2017a. https://www.cdc.gov/women/lcod/2014/race-ethnicity/index.htm. Accessed 20 Oct 2017

  • Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. National breast and cervical cancer early detection program. 2017b. http://www.cdc.gov/cancer/nbccedp/about.htm. Accessed 23 Oct 2017

  • Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. National breast and cervical cancer early detection program: national aggregate. 2017c. http://www.cdc.gov/cancer/nbccedp/data/summaries/national_aggregate.htm. Accessed 22 Aug 2017

  • Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Screen for life: national colorectal cancer action campaign. 2017d. http://www.cdc.gov/cancer/colorectal/sfl/. Accessed 24 Oct 2017

  • Chen L, Li CI (2015) Racial disparities in breast cancer diagnosis and treatment by hormone receptor and HER2 status. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 24(11):1666–1672

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Chen F, Chen GK, Stram DO, Millikan RC, Ambrosone CB, John EM et al (2013) A genome-wide association study of breast cancer in women of African ancestry. Hum Genet 132(1):39–48

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Coetzee GA, Ross RK (1994) Re: prostate cancer and the androgen receptor. J Natl Cancer Inst 86(11):872–873

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cokkinides VE, Halpern MT, Barbeau EM, Ward E, Thun MJ (2008) Racial and ethnic disparities in smoking-cessation interventions: analysis of the 2005 National Health Interview Survey. Am J Prev Med 34(5):404–412

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Collins M (1997) Increasing prostate cancer awareness in African American men. Oncol Nurs Forum 24(1):91–95

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Commission on Social Determinants of Health (2008) Closing the gap in a generation: health equity through action on the social determinants of health. World Health Organization, Geneva

    Google Scholar 

  • Conlisk EA, Lengerich EJ, Demark-Wahnefried W, Schildkraut JM, Aldrich TE (1999) Prostate cancer: demographic and behavioral correlates of stage at diagnosis among blacks and whites in North Carolina. Urology 53(6):1194–1199

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Connolly GN. Testimony before the U.S. Senate Committee on health, education, labor and pensions: the need for FDA regulation of tobacco products. 2007. www.help.senate.gov/imo/media/doc/Connolly.pdf. Accessed 24 Oct 2017

  • Cooper LA, Roter DL, Johnson RL, Ford DE, Steinwachs DM, Powe NR (2003) Patient-centered communication, ratings of care, and concordance of patient and physician race. Ann Intern Med 139(11):907–915

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Corbie-Smith G (2004) Minority recruitment and participation in health research. N C Med J 65(6):385–387

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Corbie-Smith G, Thomas SB, Williams MV, Moody-Ayers S (1999) Attitudes and beliefs of African Americans toward participation in medical research. J Gen Intern Med 14(9):537–546

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Corbie-Smith G, Viscoli CM, Karnan WN (2003) Influence of race, clinical and other socio-demographic features on trial participation. J Clin Epidemiol 56(4):304–309

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Coronado GD, Thompson B, Koepsell TD, Schwartz SM, McLerran D (2004) Use of Pap test among Hispanics and non-Hispanic whites in a rural setting. Prev Med 38:713–722

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Coughlin SS, Breslau ES, Thompson T, Benard VB (2005) Physician recommendation for Papanicolaou testing among U.S. women, 2000. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 14:1143–1148

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Coughlin SS, Matthews-Juarez P, Juarez PD, Melton CE, King M (2014) Opportunities to address lung cancer disparities among African Americans. Cancer Med 3(6):1467–1476

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Daher M (2012) Cultural beliefs and values in cancer patients. Ann Oncol 23(Suppl 3):66–69

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Danforth DN (2013) Disparities in breast cancer outcomes between Caucasian and African American women: a model for describing the relationship of biological and nonbiological factors. Breast Cancer Res 15(3):208

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • De Alba I, Sweningson JM (2006) English proficiency and physicians’ recommendation of Pap smears among Hispanics. Cancer Detect Prev 30:292–296

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • DeNavas-Walt C, Proctor BD, Smith JC U.S. Census Bureau, current population reports, P60–239, income, poverty, and health insurance coverage in the United States: 2010. U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, DC, p 2011

    Google Scholar 

  • Dennis BP, Neese JB (2000) Recruitment and retention of African American elders into community-based research: lessons learned. Arch Psychiatr Nurs 14:3–11

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Devolli-Disha E, Manxhuka-Kërliu S, Ymeri H, Kutllovci A (2009) Comparative accuracy of mammography and ultrasound in women with breast symptoms according to age and breast density. Bosn J Basic Med Sci 9(2):131–136

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Dimou A, Syrigos KN, Saif MW (2009) Disparities in colorectal cancer in African-Americans vs. Whites: before and after diagnosis. World J Gastroenterol 15(30):3734–3743

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Dorsainvil MA (2017) Increasing cervical cancer screening in underserved populations. J Christ Nurs 34(3):152–158

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Doughty MJ (2013) An applied research intervention: breast cancer and preventive services in African American women. Health Promot Pract 14(5):732–740

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Downey L, Hawkins B (2008) Race, income, and environmental inequality in the United States. Sociol Perspect 51(4):759–781

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Downs LS, Smith JS, Scarinci I, Flowers L, Parham G (2008) The disparity of cervical cancer in diverse populations. Gynecol Oncol 109:S22–S30

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dube SR, Asman K, Malarcher A, Carabollo R (2009) Cigarette smoking among adults and trends in smoking cessation-United States, 2008. MMWR 58(44):1227–1232

    Google Scholar 

  • Duhl L, Hancock T (1988) A guide to assessing healthy cities. World Health Organization Healthy Cities Papers No. 3. World Health Organization, Copenhagen, Denmark

    Google Scholar 

  • Eberhardt MS, Pamuk ER (2004) The importance of place of residence: examining health in rural and nonrural areas. Am J Public Health 94(10):1682–1686

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Eheman C, Henley SJ, Ballard-Barbash R, Jacobs EJ, Schymura MJ, Noone AM et al (2012) Annual report to the nation on the status of cancer, 1975–2008, featuring cancers associated with excess weight and lack of sufficient physical activity. Cancer 118:2338–2366

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Elit L, Kryzanowska M, Saskin R, Barbera L, Razzaq A, Lofters A et al (2012) Sociodemographic factors associated with cervical cancer screening and follow-up of abnormal results. Can Fam Physician 58:e22–e31

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Engelstad LP, Stewart SL, Nguyen BH, Bedeian KL, Rubin MM, Pasick RJ et al (2001) Abnormal Pap smear follow-up in a high-risk population. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 10:1015–1020

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Enokida H, Shiina H, Urakami S, Igawa M, Ogishima T, Pookot D et al (2005) Ethnic group-related differences in CpG hypermethylation of the GSTP1 gene promoter among African-American, Caucasian and Asian patients with prostate cancer. Int J Cancer 116(2):174–181

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Farmer MM, Ferraro KF (2005) Are racial disparities in health conditional on socioeconomic status? Soc Sci Med 60(1):191–204

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Fedewa SA, Edge SB, Stewart AK, Halpern MT, Marlow NM, Ward EM (2011) Race and ethnicity are associated with delays in breast cancer treatment (2003–2006). J Health Care Poor Underserved 22(1):128–141

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Finney Rutten LJ, Augustson EM, Moser RP, Beckjord EB, Hesse BW (2008) Smoking knowledge and behavior in the United States: sociodemographic, smoking status, and geographic patterns. Nicotine Tob Res 10(10):1559–1570

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Fiscella K, Humiston S, Hendren S, Winters P, Idris A, Li SX et al (2011a) A multimodal intervention to promote mammography and colorectal cancer screening in a safety-net practice. J Natl Med Assoc 103(8):762–768

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Fiscella K, Humiston S, Hendren S, Winters P, Jean-Pierre P, Idris A et al (2011b) Eliminating disparities in cancer screening and follow-up of abnormal results: what will it take? J Health Care Poor Underserved 22(1):83–100

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Flegal KM, Kruszon-Moran D, Carroll MD (2016) Trends in obesity among adults in the United States, 2005 to 2014. JAMA 315(21):2284–2291

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Flenaugh EL, Henriques-Forsythe MN (2006) Lung cancer disparities in African Americans: health versus health care. Clin Chest Med 27(3):431–439

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Flores G, Lin H (2013) Trends in racial/ethnic disparities in medical and oral health, access to care, and use of services in US children: has anything changed over the years? Int J Equity Health 12:10

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Forrester-Anderson IT (2005) Prostate cancer screening perceptions, knowledge and behaviors among African American men: focus group findings. J Health Care Poor Underserved 16(4):22–30

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Foulkes WD (2008) Inherited susceptibility to common cancers. N Engl J Med 359(20):2143–2153

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Fowler JE, Christie DW (1996) African-American participation in prostate cancer screening. Urology 50(3):483–486

    Google Scholar 

  • Freedland SJ, Isaacs WB (2005) Explaining racial differences in prostate cancer in the United States: sociology or biology? Prostate 62(3):243–252

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Freeman HP, Wingrove BK (2005) Excess cervical cancer mortality: a marker for low access to health care in poor communities. Rockville, National Cancer Institute, Center to Reduce Cancer Health Disparities

    Google Scholar 

  • Gadgeel SM, Kalemkerian GP (2003) Racial differences in lung cancer. Cancer Metastasis Rev 22:39–46

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gao G, Burke N, Somkin CP, Pasick R (2009) Considering culture in physician-patient communication during colorectal cancer screening. Qual Health Res 19(6):778–789

    Article  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Gaston KE, Kim D, Singh S, Ford OH, Mohler JL (2003) Racial differences in androgen receptor protein expression in men with clinically localized prostate cancer. J Urol 170(3):990–993

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • George P, Chandwani S, Gabel M, Ambrosone CB, Rhoads G, Bandera EV et al (2015) Diagnosis and surgical delays in African American and white women with early-stage breast cancer. J Women’s Health (Larchmt) 24(3):209–217

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gerend MA, Pai M (2008) Social determinants of black-white disparities in breast cancer mortality: a review. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 17(11):2913–2923

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gilbert SM, Pow-Sang JM, Xiao H (2016) Geographical factors associated with health disparities in prostate cancer. Cancer Control 23(4):401–408

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Giovino GA, Villanti AC, Mowery PD, Sevilimedu V, Niaura RS, Vallone DM et al (2015) Differential trends in cigarette smoking in the USA: is menthol slowing progress? Tob Control 24(1):28–37

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gordon HS, Street RL, Sharf BF, Souchek J (2006) Racial differences in doctors’ information-giving and patients’ participation. Cancer 107(6):1313–1320

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Graves JA, Swartz K (2017) Effects of Affordable Care Act marketplaces and Medicaid eligibility expansion on access to cancer care. Cancer J 23(3):168–174

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Green LW, Glasgow RE (2006) Evaluating the relevance, generalization, and applicability of research: issues in external validation and translation methodology. Eval Health Prof 29(1):126–153

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Green BL, Partridge EE, Fouad MN, Kohler C, Crayton EF, Alexander L (2000) African-American attitudes regarding cancer clinical trials and research studies: results from focus group methodology. Ethn Dis 10:76–86

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Green BL, Rivers BM, Arekere D (2006) Mentoring: a framework for developing health disparities researchers. Health Promot Pract 7(3):336–345

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Green BL, Li L, Morris JF, Gluzman R, Davis JL, Wang MQ et al (2011) Detailed knowledge of the Tuskegee syphilis study: who knows what? A framework for health promotion strategies. Health Educ Behav 38(6):629–636

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Griffith K, Evans L, Bor J (2017) The Affordable Care Act reduced socioeconomic disparities in health care access. Health Aff (Millwood). Published ahead of print

    Google Scholar 

  • Gudmundsson J, Sulem P, Manolescu A, Amundadottir LT, Gudbjartsson D, Helgason A et al (2007) Genome-wide association study identifies a second prostate cancer susceptibility variant at 8q24. Nat Genet 39(5):631–637

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Guide to Community Preventive Services. Multicomponent interventions recommended to increase cancer screening. 2017. https://www.thecommunityguide.org/content/multicomponent-interventions-recommended-increase-cancer-screening. Accessed 26 Oct 2017

  • Gundersen DA, Delnevo CD, Wackowski O (2009) Exploring the relationship between race/ethnicity, menthol smoking, and cessation, in a nationally representative sample of adults. Prev Med 49(6):553–557

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Halbert CH, Armstrong K, Gandy OH, Shaker L (2006) Racial differences in trust in health care providers. Arch Intern Med 166:896–901

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hamidovic A, Goodloe RJ, Bergen AW, Benowitz NL, Styn MA, Kasberger JL et al (2012) Gene-centric analysis of serum cotinine levels in African and European American populations. Neuropsychopharmacology 37(4):968–974

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hawley ST, Volk RJ, Krishnamurthy P, Jibaja-Weiss M, Vernon SW, Kneuper S (2008) Preferences for colorectal cancer screening among racially/ethnically diverse primary care patients. Med Care 46:S10–S16

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Health Affairs. Health policy brief: achieving equity in health. 2011. http://www.healthaffairs.org/healthpolicybriefs/brief.php?brief_id=53. Accessed 18 Oct 2017

  • Horner MJ, Altekruse SF, Zou J, Wideroff L, Katki HA, Stinchcomb DG (2011) US geographic distribution of pre-vaccine era cervical cancer screening, incidence, stage, and mortality. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 20(4):591–599

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Hou JK, Kramer JR, Richardson P, Mei M, El-Serag HB (2012) Risk of colorectal cancer among Caucasian and African American veterans with ulcerative colitis. Inflamm Bowel Dis 18:1011–1017

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • House JS (2002) Understanding social factors and inequalities in health: 20th century progress and 21st century prospects. J Health Soc Behav 43:125–142

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • House JS, Williams D (2000) Understanding and reducing socioeconomic and racial/ethnic disparities in health. In: Smedley BD, Syme SL (eds) Promoting health: intervention strategies from social and behavioral research. National Academy Press, Washington, DC, pp 81–124

    Google Scholar 

  • Howard G, Anderson RT, Russell G, Howard VJ, Burke GL (2000) Race, socioeconomic status, and cause-specific mortality. Ann Epidemiol 10(4):214–223

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Howlader N, Noone AM, Krapcho M, Miller D, Bishop K, Kosary CL, et al. SEER cancer statistics review, 1975–2014. 2017. https://seer.cancer.gov/csr/1975_2014/. Accessed 27 July 2017

  • Hu Y, Dobi A, Sreenath T, Cook C, Tadase AY, Ravindranath L et al (2008) Delineation of TMPRSS2-ERG splice variants in prostate cancer. Clin Cancer Res 14(15):4719–4725

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Irvin Vidrine J, Reitzel LR, Wetter DW (2009) The role of tobacco in cancer health disparities. Curr Oncol Rep 11(6):475–481

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Jackson CS, Oman M, Patel AM, Vega KJ (2016) Health disparities in colorectal cancer among racial and ethnic minorities in the United States. J Gastrointest Oncol 7(Suppl 1):S32–S43

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Jemal A, Ward EM, Johnson CJ, Cronin KA, Ma J, Ryerson B et al (2017) Annual report to the nation on the status of cancer, 1975-2014, featuring survival. J Natl Cancer Inst 109(9):djx030

    Article  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Johnson CE, Mues KE, Mayne SL, Kiblawi AN (2008) Cervical cancer screening among immigrants and ethnic minorities: a systematic review using the health belief model. J Low Genit Tract Dis 12(3):232–241

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Jones J, Wang H, Zhou J, Hardy S, Turner T, Austin D et al (2012) Nuclear Kaiso indicates aggressive prostate cancers and promotes migration and invasiveness of prostate cancer cells. Am J Pathol 181(5):1836–1846

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Kahn JA, Lan D, Kahn RS (2007) Sociodemographic factors associated with high-risk human papillomavirus infection. Obstet Gynecol 110(1):87–95

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kaplan GA (1999) Part III summary: what is the role of the social environment in understanding inequalities in health? In: Adler NE, Marmot M, McEwen B, Stewart J (eds) Socioeconomic status and health in industrialized nations. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, New York, pp 116–119

    Google Scholar 

  • Katz RV, Kegeles SS, Kressin NR, Green BL, Wang MQ, James SA et al (2006) The Tuskegee legacy project: willingness of minorities to participate in biomedical research. J Health Care Poor Underserved 17(4):698–715

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Katz RV, Kegeles SS, Kressin NR, Green BL, James SA, Wang MQ et al (2008) Awareness of the Tuskegee Syphilis Study and the US presidential apology and their influence on minority participation in biomedical research. Am J Public Health 98(6):1137–1142

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Kawachi I, Daniels N, Robinson DE (2005) Health disparities by race and class: why both matter. Health Aff 24(2):343–352

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Keppel K, Pamuk E, Lynch J, Carter-Pokras O, Kim I, Mays VM et al (2005) Methodological issues in measuring health disparities. Vital Health Stat 2(141):1–16

    Google Scholar 

  • Kerns SL, Ostrer H, Stock R, Li W, Moore J, Pearlman A et al (2010) Genome-wide association study to identify single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) associated with the development of erectile dysfunction in African-American men after radiotherapy for prostate cancer. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 78(5):1292–1300

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Kim SE, Perez-Stable EJ, Wong S, Gregorich S, Sawaya GF, Walsh JME et al (2008) Association between cancer risk perception and screening behavior among diverse women. Arch Intern Med 168(7):728–734

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Kington R, Tisnado D, Carlisle DM (2001) Increasing racial and ethnic diversity among physicians: an intervention to address health disparities? In: Smedley BD, Stith AY, Colburn L, Evans C (eds) The right thing to do, the smart thing to do: enhancing diversity in the health professions. National Academy Press, Washington, DC, pp 57–90

    Google Scholar 

  • Kirby JB, Kaneda T (2010) Unhealthy and uninsured: exploring racial difference in health and health insurance coverage using a life table approach. Demography 47(4):1035–1051

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Kobetz E, Menard J, Hazan G, Koru-Sengul T, Joseph T, Nissan J et al (2011) Perceptions of HPV and cervical cancer among Haitian immigrant women: implications for vaccine acceptability. Educ Health 24(3):479

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kreiger N (2005) Defining and investigating social disparities in cancer: critical issues. Cancer Causes Control 16(1):5–14

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kwabi-Addo B, Wang S, Chung W, Jelinek J, Patierno SR, Wang BD et al (2010) Identification of differentially methylated genes in normal prostate tissues from African American and Caucasian men. Clin Cancer Res 16(14):3539–3547

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lansdorp-Vogelaar I, Kuntz KM, Knudsen AB, van Ballegooijen M, Zauber AG, Jemal A (2012) Contribution of screening and survival differences to racial disparities in colorectal cancer rates. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 21(5):728–736

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • LaVeist TA, Nickerson KJ, Bowie JV (2000) Attitudes about racism, medical mistrust, and satisfaction with care among African American and white cardiac patients. Med Care Res Rev 57(4 Suppl):146–161

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lee YY, Lin JL (2010) Do patient autonomy preferences matter? Linking patient-centered care to patient-physician relationships and health outcomes. Soc Sci Med 71(10):1811–1818

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Leidner RS, Fu P, Clifford B, Hamdan A, Jin C, Eisenberg R et al (2009) Genetic abnormalities of the EGFR pathway in African American patients with non-small-cell lung cancer. J Clin Oncol 27(33):5620–5626

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Li J, Mercer E, Gou X, Lu YJ (2013) Ethnical disparities of prostate cancer predisposition: genetic polymorphisms in androgen-related genes. Am J Cancer Res 3(2):127–151

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Lindau ST, Basu A, Leitsch SA (2006) Health literacy as a predictor of follow-up after an abnormal Pap smear: a prospective study. J Gen Intern Med 21:829–834

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Lupkin S. Deep roots for lack of minorities in American medical schools. 2016. https://www.medpagetoday.com/publichealthpolicy/medicaleducation/56730. Accessed 20 Oct 2017.

    Google Scholar 

  • Luque JS, Hsu JP, Castañeda H, Tyson DM, Vargas N, Proctor S et al (2010) HPV awareness among Latina immigrants and Anglo American women in the southern U.S.: cultural models of cervical cancer risk factors and beliefs. NAPA Bull 34(1):84–104

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Lynch J, Gollust SE (2010) Playing fair: fairness beliefs and health policy preferences in the United States. J Health Polit Policy Law 35(6):849–887

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Magi-Galluzzi C, Tsusuki T, Elson P, Simmerman K, LaFargue C, Esgueva R et al (2011) TMPRSS2-ERG gene fusion prevalence and class are significantly different in prostate cancer of Caucasian, African-American and Japanese patients. Prostate 71(5):489–497

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Marmot MG (2012) Policy making with health equity at its heart. JAMA 307(19):2033–2034

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Martin DN, Starks AM, Ambs S (2013) Biological determinants of health disparities in prostate cancer. Curr Opin Oncol 25(3):235–241

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Maskarinec G, Sen C, Koga K, Conroy SM (2011) Ethnic differences in breast cancer survival: status and determinants. Women’s Health (Lond Engl) 7(6):677–687

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Meade CD, Menard J, Martinez D, Calvo A (2007) Impacting health disparities through community outreach: utilizing the CLEAN look (culture, literacy, education, assessment, and networking). Cancer Control 14(1):70–77

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Miller JW, Plescia M, Ekwueme DU (2014) Public health national approach to reducing breast and cervical cancer disparities. Cancer 120(Suppl 16):2537–2539

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Minority Health, Health Disparities Research and Education Act (2000) Public Law 106–525. Stat 114:2495–2511

    Google Scholar 

  • Mirowsky J, Ross CE (2003) Education, social status, and health. Taylor & Francis, New York

    Google Scholar 

  • Mishra SI, DeForge B, Barnet B, Ntiri S, Grant L (2012) Social determinants of breast cancer screening in urban primary care practices: a community-engaged formative study. Women’s Health Issues 22(5):e429–e438

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Moore de Peralta A, Holaday B, McDonell JR (2015) Factors affecting Hispanic women’s participation in screening for cervical cancer. J Immigr Minor Health 17:684–695

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mosquera JM, Mehra R, Regan MM, Perner S, Genega EM, Bueti G et al (2009) Prevalence of TMPRSS2-ERG fusion prostate cancer among men undergoing prostate biopsy in the United States. Clin Cancer Res 15(14):4706–4711

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Moul JW, Connelly RR, Mooneyhan RM, Zhang W, Sesterhenn IA, Mostofi FK et al (1999) Racial differences in tumor volume and prostate specific antigen among radical prostatectomy patients. J Urol 162(2):394–397

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Moyer VA, U.S. (2012) Preventive Services Task Force. Screening for prostate cancer: U.S. Preventive Task Force recommendation statement. Ann Intern Med 157(2):120–134

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mulligan CR, Meram AD, Proctor CD, Wu H, Zhu K, Marrogi AJ (2006) Unlimited access to care: effect on racial disparity and prognostic factors in lung cancer. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 15(1):25–31

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Muscat JE, Djordjevic MV, Colosimo S, Stellman SD, Richie JP (2005) Racial differences in exposure and glucuronidation of the tobacco-specific carcinogen 4-(methylnitrosamino)-1-(3-pyridyl)-1-butanone (NNK). Cancer 103(7):1420–1426

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Myers RE, Wolf TA, Balshem AM, Ross EA, Chodak GW (1994) Receptivity of African-American men to prostate cancer screening. Urology 43:480–497

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Myers RE, Chodak GW, Wolf TA, Burgh DY, McGory GT, Marcus SM et al (1999) Adherence by African American men to prostate cancer education and early detection. Cancer 86(1):88–104

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Myers RE, Hyslop T, Wolf TA, Burgh D, Kunkel EJA, Oyesanmi OA et al (2000) African-American men and intention to adhere to recommended follow-up for an abnormal prostate cancer early detection examination result. Urology 55:716–720

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Nardi C, Sandhu P, Selix N (2016) Cervical cancer screening among minorities in the United States. J Nurse Pract 12(10):675–682

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • National Cancer Institute. About cancer health disparities. 2015. https://www.cancer.gov/about-nci/organization/crchd/about-health-disparities. Accessed 1 Aug 2017

  • National Cancer Institute. Cervical cancer screening. 2016a. https://www.cancer.gov/types/cervical/patient/cervical-screening-pdq. Accessed 27 July 2017

  • National Cancer Institute. What are clinical trials? 2016b. https://www.cancer.gov/about-cancer/treatment/clinical-trials/what-are-trials. Accessed 25 Oct 2017

  • National Cancer Institute, Center to Reduce Cancer Health Disparities. Economic costs of cancer health disparities: summary of meeting proceedings. 2004. https://nciphub.org/resources/434/download/NCIeconomiccosts.pdf. Accessed 25 Oct 2017

  • National Center for Health Statistics (2017) Health, United States, 2016: with chartbook on long-term trends in health. U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, DC

    Google Scholar 

  • Naylor K, Ward J, Polite BN (2012) Interventions to improve care related to colorectal cancer among racial and ethnic minorities: a systematic review. J Gen Intern Med 27:1033–1046

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Nelson WG, De Marzo AM, Yegnasubramanian S (2009) Epigenetic alterations in human prostate cancers. Endocrinology 150(9):3991–4002

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Nemesure B, Wu SY, Hambleton IR, Leske MC, Hennis AJ (2009) Risk factors for breast cancer in a black population—the Barbados National Cancer Study. Int J Cancer 124(1):174–179

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Newmann SJ, Garner EO (2005) Social inequities along the cervical cancer continuum: a structured review. Cancer Causes Control 16:63–70

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Nguyen TT, McPhee SJ (2003) Patient-provider communication in cancer screening. J Gen Intern Med 18(5):402–403

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Nguyen TT, McPhee SJ, Nguyen T, Lam T, Mock J (2002) Predictors of cervical Pap smear screening awareness, intention, and receipt among Vietnamese-American women. Am J Prev Med 23:207–214

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Nguyen AB, Belgrave FZ, Sholley BK (2011) Development of a breast and cervical cancer screening intervention for Vietnamese American women: a community-based participatory approach. Health Promot Pract 12:876–886

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • O’Brien MJ, Halbert CH, Bixby R, Pimentel S, Shea JA (2010) Community health worker intervention to decrease cervical cancer disparities in Hispanic women. J Gen Intern Med 25(11):1186–1192

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • O’Rourke ME, Germino BB (1998) Prostate cancer treatment decisions: a focus group exploration. Oncol Nurs Forum 25(1):97–103

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Odedina FT, Scrivens J, Emanuel A, LaRose-Pierre M, Brown J, Nash R (2004) A focus group study of factors influencing African-American men’s prostate cancer screening behavior. J Natl Med Assoc 96(6):780–788

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Odierna DH, Afable-Munsuz A, Ikediobi O, Beattie M, Knight S, Ko M et al (2011) Early developments in gene-expression profiling of breast tumors: potential for increasing black-white patient disparities in breast cancer outcomes? Pers Med 8(6):669–679

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Oeffinger KC, Fontham ETH, Etzioni R (2015) Breast cancer screening for women at average risk: 2015 guideline update from the American Cancer Society. JAMA 314(15):1599–1614

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Okuyemi KS, Faseru B, Sanderson Cox L, Bronars CA, Ahluwalia JS (2007) Relationship between menthol cigarettes and smoking cessation among African American light smokes. Addiction 102(12):1979–1986

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Onel E, Hamond C, Wason JH, Berlin BB, Ely MG, Laudone VP et al (1998) Assessment of the feasibility and impact of shared decision making in prostate cancer. Urology 51:63–66

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Page KR, Castillo-Page L, Wright SM (2011) Faculty diversity programs in U.S. medical schools and characteristics associated with higher faculty diversity. Acad Med 86(10):1221–1228

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Partridge EE, Fouad N, Hinton A, Hardy M, Liscovicz N, White-Johnson F et al (2005) The deep south network for cancer control: eliminating cancer disparities through community-academic collaboration. Fam Community Health 28(1):6–19

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Paxton RJ, Phillips KL, Jones LA, Chang S, Taylor WC, Courneya KS et al (2012) Associations among physical activity, body mass index, and health-related quality of life by race/ethnicity in a diverse sample of breast cancer survivors. Cancer 118(16):4024–4031

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Peprah E, Xu H, Tekola-Ayele F, Royal CD (2015) Genome-wide association studies in Africans and African Americans: expanding the framework of the genomics of human traits and disease. Public Health Genomics 18(1):40–51

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Peretti-Watel P, Fressard L, Bocquier A, Verger P (2016) Perceptions of cancer risk factors and socioeconomic status. A French study. Prev Med Rep 3:171–176

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Perez T, Hattis P, Barnett K. Health professions accreditation and diversity: a review of current standards and processes. 2007. http://archive.dialogue4health.org/webforums/PDFs10_20_10/Health-Professions-Accreditation-and-Diversity_8-30.pdf. Accessed 18 Oct 2017

    Google Scholar 

  • Pérez-Stable EJ, Herrera B, Jacob P, Benowitz NL (1998) Nicotine metabolism and intake in black and white smokers. JAMA 280(2):152–156

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Petrovics G, Liu A, Shaheduzzaman S, Furusato B, Sun C, Chen Y et al (2005) Frequent overexpression of ETS-related gene-1 (ERG1) in prostate cancer transcriptome. Oncogene 24(23):3847–3852

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Phelan JC, Link BG, Tehranifar P (2010) Social conditions as fundamental causes of health inequalities: theory, evidence, and policy implications. J Health Soc Behav 51(Suppl):S28–S40

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Platz EA, Rimm EB, Willett WC, Kantoff PW, Giovannucci E (2000) Racial variation in prostate cancer incidence and in hormonal system markers among male health professionals. J Natl Cancer Inst 92(24):2009–2017

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Post DM, Cegala DJ, Marinelli TM (2001) Teaching patients to communicate with physicians: the impact of race. J Natl Med Assoc 93:6–12

    CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Powell IJ, Land SJ, Dey J, Heilbrun LK, Hughes MR, Sakr W et al (2005) The impact of CAG repeats in exon 1 of the androgen receptor on disease progression after prostatectomy. Cancer 103(3):528–537

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Powell JH, Fleming Y, Walker-McGill CL, Lenoir M (2008) The project IMPACT experience to date: increasing minority participation and awareness of clinical trials. J Natl Med Assoc 100(2):178–187

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Price JH, Colvin TL, Smith D (1993) Prostate cancer: perceptions of African American males. J Natl Med Assoc 85:941–947

    CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Proctor BD, Semega JL, Kollar MA (2016) Current population reports, P60-256(RV), income and poverty in the United States: 2015. U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, DC

    Google Scholar 

  • Purnell JQ, Peppone LJ, Alcaraz K, McQueen A, Guido JJ, Carroll JK et al (2012) Perceived discrimination, psychological distress, and current smoking status: results from the Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System Reactions to Race module, 2004-2008. Am J Public Health 102(5):844–851

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Rask K, O’Malley E, Druss B (2009) Impact of socioeconomic, behavioral and clinical risk factors on mortality. J Public Health (Oxf) 31(2):231–238

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Reams RR, Agrawal D, Davis MB, Yoder S, Odedina FT, Kumar N et al (2009) Microarray comparison of prostate tumor gene expression in African-American and Caucasian American males: a pilot project study. Infect Agent Cancer 4(Suppl 1):S3

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Rebbeck TR (2017) Prostate cancer genetics: variation by race, ethnicity, and geography. Semin Radiat Oncol 27(1):3–10

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Richardson JT, Webster JD, Fields NJ (2004) Uncovering myths and transforming realities among low-SES African American men: implications for reducing prostate cancer disparities. J Natl Med Assoc 96(10):1295–1302

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Roach M, De Silvio M, Rebbick T, Grignon D, Rotman M, Wolkov H et al (2007) Racial differences in CYP3A4 genotype and survival among men treated on Radiation Therapy Oncology Group (RTOG) 9202: a phase III randomized trial. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 69(1):79–87

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Robbins AS, Siegel RL, Jemal A (2008) Racial disparities in stage-specific colorectal cancer mortality rates from 1995 to. J Clin Oncol 2012(30):401–405

    Google Scholar 

  • Robinson SB, Ashley M, Haynes MA (1996) Attitudes of African Americans regarding screening for prostate cancer. J Natl Med Assoc 88(4):241–246

    CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Robinson-White S, Conroy B, Slavish KH, Rosenzweig M (2010) Patient navigation in breast cancer: a systematic review. Cancer Nurs 33(2):127–140

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Roetzheim RG, Pal N, Tennant C, Voti L, Ayanian JZ, Schwabe A et al (1999) Effects of health insurance and race on early detection of cancer. J Natl Cancer Inst 91(16):1409–1415

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Roland KB, Milliken EL, Rohan EA, DeGroff A, White S, Melillo S et al (2017) Use of community health workers and patient navigators to improve cancer outcomes among patients served by federally qualified health centers: a systematic literature review. Health Equity 1(1):61–76

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Roter DL (1987) Patient participation in clinical decision making. Patient Educ Couns 9:25–31

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rural Health Information Hub. Community health workers evidence-based models toolbox. 2011. https://www.ruralhealthinfo.org/community-health/community-health-workers. Accessed 24 Oct 2017

  • Satia JA, Keku T, Galanko JA, Martin C, Doctolero RT, Tajima A et al (2005) Diet, lifestyle, and genomic instability in the North Carolina Colon Study. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 14:429–436

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Scarinci IC, Garcia FAR, Kobetz E, Partridge EE, Brandt HM, Bell MC et al (2010) Cervical cancer prevention: new tools and old barriers. Cancer 116(11):2531–2542

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Schapira MM, VanRuiswyk J (2000) The effect of an illustrated pamphlet decision-aid on the use of prostate cancer screening tests. J Fam Pract 49(5):418–424

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Schapira MM, Meade C, Nattinger AB (1997) Enhanced decision making: the use of a videotape decision-aid for patients with prostate cancer. Patient Educ Couns 30:119–127

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Schoenborn CA, Adams PF, Peregoy JA (2013) Health behaviors of adults: United States, 2008-2010. Vital Health Stat 10(257)

    Google Scholar 

  • Schwartz AG, Cote ML, Wenzlaff AS, Land S, Amos CI (2009) Racial differences in the association between SNPs on 15q25.1, smoking behavior, and risk of non-small cell lung cancer. J Thorac Oncol 4(10):1195–1201

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Sealy-Jefferson S, Vickers J, Elam A, Wilson MR (2015) Racial and ethnic health disparities and the Affordable Care Act: a status update. J Racial Ethn Health Disparities 2(4):583–588

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Shavers VL, Lynch CF, Burmeister LF (2001) Factors that influence African-Americans’ willingness to participate in medical research studies. Cancer 91(1 Suppl):233–236

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Shavers VL, Lynch CF, Burmeister LF (2002) Racial differences in factors that influence the willingness to participate in medical research studies. Ann Epidemiol 12:248–256

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sheppard VB, Makambi K, Taylor T, Wallington SF, Sween J, Adams-Campbell L (2011) Physical activity reduces breast cancer risk in African American women. Ethn Dis 21(4):406–411

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sheppard VB, Graves KD, Christopher J, Hurtado-de-Mendoza A, Talley C, Williams KP (2014) African American women's limited knowledge and experiences with genetic counseling for hereditary breast cancer. J Genet Couns 23(3):311–322

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Siegel R, Naishadham D, Jemal A (2013) Cancer Statistics 2013. CA Cancer J Clin 63:11–30

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Singh GK, Jemal A (2017) Socioeconomic and racial/ethnic disparities in cancer mortality, incidence, and survival in the United States, 1950–2014: over six decades of changing patterns and widening inequalities. J Environ Public Health 2017:2819372

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Siu AL (2016) Screening for breast cancer: U.S. Preventive Services Task Force recommendation statement. Ann Intern Med 164:279–296

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Smedley BD (2006) Expanding the frame of understanding health disparities: from a focus on health systems to social and economic systems. Health Educ Behav 33(4):538–541

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Smedley BD, Stith AY, Nelson AR (2003) Unequal treatment: confronting racial and ethnic disparities in healthcare. National Academy Press, Washington, DC

    Google Scholar 

  • Smedley BD, Butler AS, Bristow LR (2004) In the nation’s compelling interest: ensuring diversity in the healthcare workforce. National Academy Press, Washington, DC

    Google Scholar 

  • Smith GE, DeHaven MJ, Grudnig JP, Wilson GR (1997) African-American males and prostate cancer: assessing knowledge levels in the community. J Natl Med Assoc 89:387–391

    CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Smith JL, Wilson KM, Orians CE, Byrd TL (2013) AMIGAS: building a cervical cancer screening intervention for public health practice. J Women’s Health (Larchmt) 22(9):718–723

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Smith RA, Andrews KS, Brooks D, Fedewa SA, Manassaram-Baptiste D, Saslow D et al (2017) Cancer screening in the United States, 2017: a review of current American Cancer Society guidelines and current issues in cancer screening. CA Cancer J Clin 67:100–121

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Smith-Bindman R, Miglioretti DL, Lurie N, Abraham L, Barbash RB, Strzelczyk J et al (2006) Does utilization of screening mammography explain racial and ethnic differences in breast cancer? Ann Intern Med 144(8):541–553

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Solar O, Irwin A. A conceptual framework for action on the social determinants of health. 2010. http://www.who.int/sdhconference/resources/ConceptualframeworkforactiononSDH_eng.pdf. Accessed 17 Oct 2017

  • Spector D, Deroo LA, Sandler DP (2011) Lifestyle behaviors in black and white women with a family history of breast cancer. Prev Med 52(5):394–397

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Stallings FL, Ford ME, Simpson NK (2000) Black participation in the prostate, lung, colorectal, and ovarian (PLCO) cancer screening trial. Control Clin Trials 21(6 Suppl):379S–389S

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Steele CB, Miller DS, Maylahn C, Uhler RJ, Baker CT (2000) Knowledge, attitudes, and screening practices among older men regarding prostate cancer. Am J Public Health 90:1595–1600

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Street RL, O’Malley KJ, Cooper LA, Haidet P (2008) Understanding concordance in patient-physician relationships: personal and ethnic dimensions of shared identity. Ann Fam Med 6(3):198–205

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Strohl AE, Mendoza G, Ghant MS, Cameron KA, Simon MA, Schink JC et al (2015) Barriers to prevention: knowledge of HPV, cervical cancer, and HPV vaccinations among African American women. Am J Obstet Gynecol 212(1):65.e1–65.e5

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (2009) The national survey on drug use and health report: use of menthol cigarettes. Rockville, Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration

    Google Scholar 

  • Targonski PV, Guinan P, Phillips CW (1991) Prostate cancer: the stage disadvantage in the black male. J Natl Med Assoc 83(12):1094–1096

    CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Tarman GJ, Kane CJ, Moul JW, Thrasher JB, Foley JP, Wilhite D et al (2000) Impact of socioeconomic status and race on clinical parameters of patients undergoing radical prostatectomy in an equal access health care system. Urology 56(6):1016–1020

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • The Henry J. Kaiser Family Foundation. Health coverage by race and ethnicity: the potential impact of the Affordable Care Act. 2013. https://www.kff.org/disparities-policy/issue-brief/health-coverage-by-race-and-ethnicity-the-potential-impact-of-the-affordable-care-act/. Accessed 19 Oct 2017

  • The Sullivan Commission. Missing persons: minorities in the health professions. 2004. http://health-equity.lib.umd.edu/40/1/Sullivan_Final_Report_000.pdf. Accessed 18 Oct 2017

  • Tomlins SA, Alshalalfa M, Davicioni E, Erho N, Yousefi K, Zhao S et al (2015) Characterization of 1577 primary prostate cancers reveals novel biological and clinicopathologic insights into molecular subtypes. Eur Urol 68(4):555–567

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • U.S. Cancer Statistics Working Group, United States Cancer Statistics: 1999-2014 incidence and mortality web-based report. 2017. https://nccd.cdc.gov/uscs/. Accessed 20 Oct 2017

  • U.S. Census Bureau. 2014 National population projections tables. 2014. https://www.census.gov/data/tables/2014/demo/popproj/2014-summary-tables.html. Accessed 18 Oct 2017

  • U.S. Census Bureau. ACS demographic and housing estimates: 2016 American Community Survey 1-Year estimates. 2016. https://factfinder.census.gov/faces/tableservices/jsf/pages/productview.xhtml?pid=ACS_16_1YR_DP05&prodType=table. Accessed 16 Oct 2017

  • U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. Tobacco use among U.S. racial/ethnic minority groups—African Americans, American Indians and Alaska Natives, Asian Americans and Pacific Islanders, and Hispanics: a report of the surgeon general. Atlanta, Georgia: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Chronic Disease Prevention and Health Promotion, Office on Smoking and Health; 1998

    Google Scholar 

  • U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (2004) The health consequences of smoking: a report of the Surgeon General. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Chronic Disease Prevention and Health Promotion, Office on Smoking and Health, Atlanta, GA

    Google Scholar 

  • U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (2006) The health consequences of involuntary exposure to tobacco smoke: a report of the Surgeon General. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Chronic Disease Prevention and Health Promotion, Office on Smoking and Health, Atlanta, GA

    Google Scholar 

  • U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (2014) The health consequences of smoking – 50 years of progress: a report of the Surgeon General. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Chronic Disease Prevention and Health Promotion, Office on Smoking and Health, Atlanta, GA

    Google Scholar 

  • U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. Healthy people 2020. 2017. https://www.healthypeople.gov/2020/about/foundation-health-measures/Disparities. Accessed 25 Oct 2017

  • U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Health assessment document for diesel engine exhaust. 2002. https://cfpub.epa.gov/ncea/risk/recordisplay.cfm?deid=29060. Accessed 24 Oct 2017

  • United States Preventive Services Task Force. Screening for colorectal cancer (2016) U. S. Preventive Services Task Force recommendation statement. JAMA 315(23):2564–2575

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Vijayakumar S, Weichselbaum R, Vaida F, Dale W, Hellman S (1996) Prostate-specific antigen levels in African-Americans correlate with insurance status as an indicator of socioeconomic status. Cancer J Sci Am 2(4):225–233

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Volk RJ, Cass AR, Spann SJ (1999) A randomized controlled trial of shared decision making for prostate cancer screening. Arch Fam Med 8:333–340

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wahnefried WD, Strigo T, Catoe K, Conaway M, Brunetti M, Rimer BK et al (1995) Knowledge, beliefs, and prior screening behavior among blacks and whites reporting for prostate cancer screening. Urology 46(3):346–351

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wallace TA, Prueitt RL, Yi M, Howe TM, Gillespie JW, Yfantis HG et al (2008) Tumor immunobiological differences in prostate cancer between African-American and European-American men. Cancer Res 68(3):927–936

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wallerstein NB, Duran B (2006) Using community-based participatory research to address health disparities. Health Promot Pract 7(3):312–323

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Walsh B, O’Neill C (2015) Socioeconomic disparities across ethnicities: an application to cervical cancer screening. Am J Manag Care 21(9):e527–e536

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wandel C, Witte JS, Hall JM, Stein CM, Wood AJ, Wilkinson GR (2000) CYP3A activity in African American and European American men: population differences and functional effect of the CYP3A4*1B5'-promoter region polymorphism. Clin Pharmacol Ther 68(1):82–91

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Warner ET, Tamimi RM, Hughes ME, Ottesen RA, Wong YN, Edge SB et al (2012) Time to diagnosis and breast cancer stage by race/ethnicity. Breast Cancer Res Treat 136(3):813–821

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Weinrich S (2001) The debate about prostate cancer screening: what nurses need to know. Semin Oncol Nurs 17(2):78–84

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Weinrich SP, Boyd MD, Bradford D, Mossa MS, Weinrich M (1998) Recruitment of African Americans into prostate cancer screening. Cancer Pract 6(1):23–30

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wells KJ, Luque JS, Miladinovic B, Vargas N, Asvat Y, Roetzheim RG et al (2011) Do community health worker interventions improve rates of screening mammography: a systematic review. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 20(8):1580–1598

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Wendler D, Kington R, Madans J, Wye GV, Christ-Schmidt H, Pratt LA et al (2006) Are racial and ethnic minorities less willing to participate in health research? PLoS Med 3(2):e19

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • White A, Vernon SW, Franzini LDXL (2011) Racial and ethnic disparities in colorectal cancer screening persisted despite expansion of Medicare’s screening reimbursement. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 20:811–817

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • White A, Thompson TD, White MC, Sabatino SA, de Moor J, Doria-Rose PV et al (2017) Cancer screening test use—United States, 2015. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 66:201–206

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Wilkinson S, List M, Sinner M, Dai L, Chodak G (2003) Educating African-American men about prostate cancer: impact on awareness and knowledge. Urology 61:308–313

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Williams DR (1999) Race, socioeconomic status, and health; the added effects of racism and discrimination. Ann N Y Acad Sci 896:173–188

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Williams C. From coverage to care: exploring links between health insurance, a usual source of care, and access. 2002. http://www.rwjf.org/content/rwjf/en/research-publications/find-rwjf-research/2002/09/from-coverage-to-care.html. Accessed 14 Oct 2017

  • Williams DR, Jackson PB (2005) Social sources of racial disparities in health. Health Aff 24(2):325–334

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Williams CL, Tappen R, Buscemi C, Rivera R, Lezcano J (2001) Obtaining family consent for participation in Alzheimer’s research in a Cuban-American population: strategies to overcome barriers. Am J Alzheimers Dis Other Demen 16:183–187

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Woodson K, Hayes R, Wideroff L, Villaruz L, Tangrea J (2003) Hypermethylation of GSTP1, CD44, and E-cadherin genes in prostate cancer among US Blacks and Whites. Prostate 55(3):199–205

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Woodward A, Kawachi I (2000) Why reduce health inequalities? J Epidemiol Community Health 54:923–929

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Woolf SH, Braveman P (2011) Where health disparities begin: the role of social and economic determinants-and why current policies may make matters worse. Health Aff (Millwood) 30(10):1852–1859

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Yamoah K, Johnson MH, Choeurng V, Faisal FA, Yousefi K, Haddad Z et al (2015) Novel biomarker signature that may predict aggressive disease in African American men with prostate cancer. J Clin Oncol 33(25):2789–2796

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Yarnall KSH, Pollack KI, Ostbye T, Krause KM, Michener JL (2003) Primary care: is there enough time for prevention? Am J Public Health 93(4):635–641

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  • Yoo W, Kim S, Huh WK, Dilley S, Coughlin SS, Partridge EE et al (2017) Recent trends in racial and regional disparities in cervical cancer incidence and mortality in United States. PLoS One 12(2):e0172548

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  CAS  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Corresponding author

Correspondence to B. Lee Green .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2019 Springer Nature Switzerland AG

About this chapter

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this chapter

Green, B.L., Davis, J.L., Rivers, D., Buchanan, K.L., Yamoah, K. (2019). Cancer Health Disparities. In: Alberts, D., Hess, L. (eds) Fundamentals of Cancer Prevention. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-15935-1_7

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-15935-1_7

  • Published:

  • Publisher Name: Springer, Cham

  • Print ISBN: 978-3-030-15934-4

  • Online ISBN: 978-3-030-15935-1

  • eBook Packages: MedicineMedicine (R0)

Publish with us

Policies and ethics