Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Cerebral Palsy: Effects of Early Brain Injury on Development

  • Chapter
  • First Online:
Handbook of Medical Neuropsychology

  • 2281 Accesses

Abstract

The term cerebral palsy (CP) was originally coined more than a century ago and loosely translated as brain paralysis.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 99.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 129.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD 199.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

References

  1. Bax MC. Terminology and classification of CP. Dev Med Child Neurol. 1964;11:295–7.

    Google Scholar 

  2. Bax M, Goldstein M, Rosenbaum P, et al. Proposed definition and classification of CP, April 2005 – Introduction. Dev Med Child Neurol. 2005;47:571–6.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  3. Aylward GP. Cognitive and neuropsychological outcomes: more than IQ scores. Ment Retard Dev D R. 2002;8:234–40.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  4. Parkes J, White-Koning M, Dickinson HO, et al. Psychological problems in children with cerebral palsy: a cross-sectional European study. J Child Psychol Psychiat. 2008;49:405–13.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  5. Barkovich AJ, Kuzniecky RI, Jackson GD, et al. Classification system for malfunctions of cortical development: Update 2001. Neurology. 2001;57:2168–78.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  6. Krägeloh-Mann I. Imaging of early brain injury and cortical plasticity. Exp Neurol. 2004;190:S84–90.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  7. Filloux FM. Neuropathophysiology of movement disorders in cerebral palsy. J Child Neurol. 1996;11:S5–12.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  8. Himpens E, Van den Broeck C, Oostra A, et al. Prevalence, type, distribution, and severity of cerebral palsy in relation to gestational age: a meta-analytic review. Dev Med Child Neurol 2008;50: Epub ahead of print.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  9. Thorburn RJ, Lipscomb AP, Stewart AL, et al. Prediction of death and major handicap in very preterm infants by brain ultrasound. Lancet. 1981;1:119–21.

    Google Scholar 

  10. Holling EE, Leviton A. Characteristics of cranial ultrasound white-matter echolucencies that predict disability: a review. Dev Med Child Neurol. 1999;41:136–9.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  11. de Vries LS, Eken P, Groenendaal F, et al. Correlation between the degree of periventricular leukomalacia diagnosed using cranial ultrasound and MRI later in infancy in children with cerebral palsy. Neuropediatrics. 1993;24:263–8.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  12. Pirila S, van der Meere J, Korhonen P, et al. A retrospective neurocognitive study in children with spastic diplegia. Dev Neuropsychol. 2004;26:679–90.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  13. Pirila S, van der Meere J, Pentikainen T, et al. Language and motor speech skills in children with cerebral palsy. J Com Dis. 2007;40:116–28.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  14. Mercuri E, Guzzetta A, Haataja L, et al. Neonatal neurological examinations in infants with hypoxic-ischaemic encephalopathy: correlation with MRI findings. Neuropediatrics. 1999;30:83–9.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  15. van Wezel-Meijler G, van der Knaap MS, Oosting J, et al. Predictive value of neonatal MRI as compared to ultrasound in premature infants with mild periventricular white matter changes. Neuropediatrics. 1999;30:231–8.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  16. Biagioni E, Bartalena L, Boldrini A, et al. Electroencephalography in infants with periventricular leukomalacia: prognostic features at preterm and term age. J Child Neurol. 2000;15:1–6.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  17. de Vries LS, Rademaker KJ, Groenendaal F, et al. Correlation between neonatal cranial ultrasound, MRI in infancy and neurodevelopmental outcome in infants with a large intraventricular haemorrhage with and without unilateral parenchymal involvement. Neuropediatrics. 1998;29:180–8.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  18. Ringelberg J, van der Bor M. Outcome of transient periventricular echodensities in preterm infants. Neuropediatrics. 1993;24:269–73.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  19. Krägeloh-Mann I, Helber A, Mader I, et al. Bilateral lesions of thalamus and basal ganglia: origin and outcome. Dev Med Child Neurol. 2002;44:477–84.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  20. Maalouf EF, Duggan PJ, Counsell SJ, et al. Comparison of findings on cranial ultrasound and magnetic resonance imaging in preterm infants. Pediatrics. 2001;107:719–27.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  21. Childs AM, Cornette L, Ramenghi LA, et al. Magnetic resonance and cranial ultrasound characteristics of periventricular white matter abnormalities in newborn infants. Clin Radiol. 2001;56:647–55.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  22. Inder TE, Anderson NJ, Spencer C, et al. White matter injury in the premature infant: a comparison between serial cranial sonographic and MR findings at term. Am J Neuroradiol. 2003;24:805–9.

    PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  23. Ashwal S, Russman BS, Blasco PA, et al. Practice parameter: Diagnostic assessment of the child with cerebral palsy: Report of the Quality Standards Subcommittee of the American Academy of Neurology and the Practice Committee of the Child Neurology Society. Neurology. 2004;62:851–63.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  24. Bax M, Tydeman C, Flodmark O. Clinical and MRI correlates of cerebral palsy. The European Cerebral Palsy Study. JAMA. 2006;296:1602–8.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  25. de Vries LS, van Haastert IC, Rademaker KJ, et al. Ultrasound abnormalities preceding cerebral palsy in high-risk preterm infants. J Pediatr. 2004;144:815–20.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  26. Rademaker KJ, Uiterwaal CSPM, Beek FJA, et al. Neonatal cranial ultrasound versus MRI and neurodevelopmental outcome at school age in children born preterm. Arc Dis Childhood, Fetal Neonatal Edition. 2005;90:F489–93.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  27. Kulak P, Maciorkowska E, Goskic E. Volumetric magnetic resonance imaging study of brain and cerebellum in children with cerebral palsy. BioMed Res Int. 2016;2016:5961928. https://doi.org/10.1155/2016/5961928.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  28. Arrigoni F, Peruzzo D, Gagliardi C, et al. Whole-brain DTI assessment of white matter damage in children with bilateral cerebral palsy: evidence of involvement beyond the primary target of the anoxic insult. Am J Neuroradiol. 2016;37:1347–53.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  29. Santhouse AM, Ffytche DH, Howard RJ, et al. The functional significance of perinatal corpus callosum damage: an fMRI study in young adults. Brain. 2002;125:1782–92.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  30. Rosenbaum P, Paneth N, Leviton A, et al. A report: the definition and classification of cerebral palsy. April 2006. Dev Med Child Neurol 2006;supplement.

    Google Scholar 

  31. Cans C. Surveillance of cerebral palsy in Europe: a collaboration of cerebral palsy surveys and registers. Dev Med Child Neurol. 2000;42:816–24.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  32. Tomlin PI. The static encephalopathies. In: Newton RW, editor. Color Atlas of Pediatric Psychiatry. London: Times-Wolfe International; 1995. p. 203–16.

    Google Scholar 

  33. Menkes JH, Sarnat HB. Perinatal asphyxia and trauma. In Menkes JH, Sarnat HB, eds. Child Neurology. Philadelphia: Lippincott, Williams & Wilkins, 2000: 401-466.

    Google Scholar 

  34. Shevell MI, Majnemer A, Poulin C, et al. Stability of motor impairment in children with cerebral palsy. Dev Med Child Neurol. 2008;50:211–5.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  35. Johnston MV, Hagberg H. Sex and the pathogenesis of cerebral palsy. Dev Med Child Neurol. 2007;49:74–8.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  36. Oskoui M, Coutinho F, Dykeman J, et al. An update on the prevalence of cerebral palsy: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Dev Med Child Neurol. 2013;55:509–19.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  37. Nordmark E, Hagglund G, Lagergren J. Cerebral palsy in southern Sweden II. Gross motor function and disabilities. Acta Paediatr 2001;90:1277-1282.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  38. Odding E, Roebroeck ME, Stam HJ. The epidemiology of cerebral palsy: incidence, impairments and risk factors. Disabil Rehabil. 2006;28:183–91.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  39. Carlsson G, Uvebrandt P, Hugdahl K, et al. Verbal and non-verbal function of children with right versus left-hemispheric cerebral palsy of pre- and perinatal origin. Dev Med Child Neurol. 1994;36:503–12.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  40. Fedrizza E, Iverno M, Botteon G, et al. The cognitive development of children born preterm and affected by spastic diplegia. Brain Development. 1993;15:428–32.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  41. Fedrizza E, Iverno M, Bruzzone MG, et al. MRI features of cerebral lesions and cognitive functions in preterm spastic diplegia children. Pediatr Neurol. 1996;15:207–12.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  42. Goto M, Ota R, Lai M, et al. MRI changes and deficits of higher brain functions in preterm diplegia. Acta Paediatr. 1994;83:506–11.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  43. Koeda T, Inoue M, Takeshita K. Constructional dyspraxia in preterm diplegia: isolation from visual and visual perceptual impairments. Acta Paediatr. 1997;86:1068–73.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  44. Sigurdardottir S, Eiriksdottir A, Gunnarsdottir E, et al. Cognitive profile in young Icelandic children with cerebral palsy. Dev Med Child Neurol. 2008;50:1–6.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  45. Stiers P, Vandenbussche E. The dissociation of perception and cognition in children with early brain damage. Brain Dev. 2004;26:81–92.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  46. Korkman M, Kirk U, Kemp SL. NEPSY: Lasten Neuropsykologinen Tutkimus. NEPSY: A Developmental Neuropsychological Assessment. Helsinki, Finland: Psychological Press, 1998.

    Google Scholar 

  47. van der Meere JJ. The role of attention. In: Sandberg S, editor. Hyperactivity and attention disorders of childhood. 2nd ed. Cambridge: University Press; 2002. p. 162–213.

    Google Scholar 

  48. Pavlova M, Sokolov A, Birbaumer N, et al. Biological motion processing in adolescents with early periventricular brain damage. Neuropsychologia. 2006;4:586–93.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  49. Grossman E, Donnelly M, Price R, et al. Brain areas involved in perception of biological motion. J Cognitive Neurosci. 2000;12:711–20.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  50. Gunn A, Cory E, Atkinson J, et al. Dorsal and ventral stream sensitivity in normal development and hemiplegia. NeuroReport. 2002;13:843–7.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  51. Posner MI, Walker JA, Friedrich FJ, et al. Effects of parietal injury on covert orienting of attention. J Neurol. 1984;4:1863–71.

    Google Scholar 

  52. Crafts S, Park TS, White DA, et al. Changes in cognitive performance in children with spastic diplegic cerebral palsy following selective dorsal rhizotomy. Pediatr Neurosurg. 1995;23:68–74.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  53. Schatz J, Craft S, White D, et al. Inhibition of return in children with perinatal brain injury. J Int Neuropsychol Soc. 2001;7:275–84.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  54. Butcher PR, Kalverboer AF, Geuze RH, et al. A longitudinal study of the development of shifts of gaze to a peripheral stimulus in preterm infants with transient periventricular echogenicity. J Exp Child Psychol. 2002;82:116–40.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  55. Steenbergen B, van Thiel E, Hulstijn W, et al. The coordination of reaching and grasping in spastic hemiparesis is characterized by segmentation. Hum Movement Sci. 2000;19:75–105.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  56. van Thiel E, Meulenbroek RGJ, Smeets JBJ, et al. Fast adjustments of ongoing movements in hemiparetic cerebral palsy. Neuropsychologia. 2002;40:16–27.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  57. van Roon D, Steenbergen B, Meulenbroek RGJ. Trunk recruitment during spoon use in tetraparetic cerebral palsy. Exp Brain Research. 2004;155:186–95.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  58. Mutsaarts M, Steenbergen B, Bekkering H. Anticipatory planning deficit and task context effects in hemiparetic cerebral palsy. Exp Brain Research. 2006;172:151–62.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  59. Mutsaarts M, Steenbergen B, Bekkering H. Impaired motor imagery in right hemiparetic cerebral palsy. Neuropsychologia. 2007;45:853–9.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  60. Johnson SH, Corballis PM, Gazzaniga MS. Within grasp but out of reach: Evidence for a double dissociation between imagined hand and arm movements in the left cerebral hemisphere. Neuropsychologia. 2001;39:36–50.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  61. Ego A, Lidzba K, Brovedani P, et al. Visual-perceptual impairment in children with cerebral palsy: a systematic review. Dev Med Child Neurol. 2015;57:46–51.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  62. Steenbergen B, Gordon AM. Activity limitations in hemiplegic cerebral palsy: evidence for disorders in motor planning. Dev Med Child Neurol. 2006;48:780–3.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  63. Hallahan DP, Stainback S, Ball DW, et al. Selective attention in cerebral palsied and normal children. J Abnorm Child Psychol. 1973;3:280–91.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  64. Fassler J. Performance of cerebral palsied children under conditions of reduced auditory input. Exceptional Children. 1970;37:201–9.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  65. Cruickshank WM, Bice HV, Wallen NE, et al. Perception and cerebral palsy: studies in figure-background relationship (2nd ed.) Syracuse, N.Y.: Syracuse University Press, 1965.

    Google Scholar 

  66. Surén P, Bakken IJ, Aase H. Autism spectrum disorder, ADHD, epilepsy, and cerebral palsy in Norwegian children. Pediatrics. 2012;130:152–8.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  67. Christ SE, White DA, Brunstrom JE, et al. Inhibitory control following perinatal brain injury. Neuropsychology. 2003;17:171–8.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  68. Gross-Tsur V, Shalev RS, Badini N, et al. Efficacy of methylphenidate in patients with cerebral palsy and attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). J Child Neurol. 2002;17:863–6.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  69. Symons FJ, Tervo RC, Kim O, et al. The effects of methylphenidate on the classroom behaviour of elementary school-age children with cerebral palsy: a preliminary observational analysis. J Child Neurol. 2007;22:89–94.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  70. Teuber HL. Why two brains? In: Smith FO, Worden FG, editors. The Neurosciences: third study program. Cambridge: MIT Press; 1974. p. 71–4.

    Google Scholar 

  71. Lidzba K, Staudt M, Wilke M, et al. Visuospatial deficits in patients with early left-hemispheric lesions and functional reorganization of language: consequence of lesion or reorganization? Neuropsychologia. 2006;44:1088–94.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  72. Liégeois F, Connelly A, Helen Cross J, et al. Language reorganization in children with early-onset lesions of the left hemisphere: an fMRI study. Brain. 2004;127:1229–36.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  73. Staudt M, Grodd W, Niemann G, et al. Early left periventricular brain lesions induce right hemispheric organization of speech. Neurology. 2001;57:122–5.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  74. Staudt M, Lidzba K, Grodd W, et al. Right-hemispheric organization of language following early left-sided brain lesions: functional MRI topography. NeuroImage. 2002;16:954–67.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  75. Mountcastle VB. The columnar organization of the neocortex. Brain. 1997;120:701–22.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  76. Friston KJ. Functional integration in the brain. In: Frackowiak RS, Friston KJ, Frith CD, et al., editors. Human Brain Function. Amsterdam: Elsevier; 2003. p. 971–97.

    Google Scholar 

  77. Stephan KE. On the role of general system theory for functional neuroimaging. J Anat. 2004;205:443–70.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  78. Pennington L, Goldbart J, Marshall J. Interaction training for conversational partners of children with cerebral palsy: a systematic review. International J Language Com Dis. 2004;39:151–70.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  79. Pennington L, Goldbart J, Marshall J. Speech and language therapy to improve the communication skills of children with cerebral palsy (Cochrane review). The Cochrane Library, Issue 4, Chichester, UK: John Wiley & Sons, Ltd, 2004.

    Google Scholar 

  80. Pennington L, Goldbart J, Marshall J. Direct speech and language therapy for children with cerebral palsy: findings from a systematic review. Dev Med Child Neurol. 2005;47:57–63.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  81. Chilosi AM, Cipriani P, Bertuccelli B, et al. Early cognitive and communication development in children with focal brain lesions. J Child Neurol. 2001;16:309–16.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  82. Foley B, Pollatsek A. Phonological processing and reading abilities in adolescents and adults with severe congenital speech impairments. Augmentative Alt Com. 1999;15:156–73.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  83. Vandervelden M, Siegel L. Phonological processing and literacy in AAC users and students with motor speech impairments. Augmentative Alt Com. 1999;15:191–209.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  84. Dahlgren Sandberg A. Reading and spelling, phonological awareness, and working memory in children with severe speech impairments: a longitudinal study. Augmentative Alt Com. 2001;17:11–26.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  85. Dahlgren Sandberg A. Reading and spelling abilities in children with severe speech impairments and cerebral palsy at 6, 9, and 12 years of age in relation to cognitive development: a longitudinal study. Dev Med Child Neurol. 2006;48:629–34.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  86. Smith M. Simply a speech impairment? Literacy challenges for individuals with severe congenital speech impairments. Int J Dis Dev Edu. 2001;48:331–53.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  87. Fennell EB, Dikel TN. Cognitive and neuropsychological functioning in children with cerebral palsy. J Child Neurol. 2001;16:58–63.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  88. Schenker R, Coster WJ, Parush S. Neuroimpairments, activity performance, and participation in children with cerebral palsy mainstreamed in elementary schools. Dev Med Child Neurol. 2005;47:808–14.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  89. van Rooijen M, Verhoeven L, Smits DW, et al. Arithemtic performance of children with cerebral palsy: the influence of cognitive and motor factors. Res Dev Disabil. 2012;33:530–7.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  90. Arp S, Fagard J. Handicap visuo-manuel et comptage chez l´enfant IMC ancient premature (Visuo-manual handicap and counting in formerly premature children with cerebral palsy). Approche Neuropsychologique des Apprentissages Chez L’enfant. 2001;13:239–48.

    Google Scholar 

  91. Camos V. Coordination process in counting. Int J Psychol. 2003;38:24–36.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  92. De Barbot F, Meljac C, Truscelli D, et al. Pour une meilleure intégration scolaire des enfants. I .M.C : l’importance des premiers apprentissages en mathématiques (For a better integration of CP children at school : Importance of basic mathematical learning). Vanves, France: C.T.N.E.R.H.I. (Centre Technique National d’Etudes et de Recherches sur les Handicaps et les Inadaptations), PUF, 1989.

    Google Scholar 

  93. Arp S, Taranne P, Fagard J. Global perception of small numerosities (subitizing) in cerebral-palsied children. J Clin Exp Neuropsyc. 2006;28:405–19.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  94. Camos V, Fayol M, Lacert P, et al. Le denombrement chez des enfants dysphasiques et des enfants dyspraxiques (Counting in dysphasic and dyspraxic children). Approche Neuropsychologique des Apprentissages chez l’enfant. 1998;48:86–91.

    Google Scholar 

  95. Alibali MW, DiRusso AA. The function of gesture in learning to count: more than keeping track. Cognitive Dev. 1999;14:37–56.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  96. Uvebrandt P. Hemiplegic cerebral palsy aetiology and outcome. Acta Psychol. 1988;345(suppl):1–100.

    Google Scholar 

  97. Jenks KM, de Moor J, van Lieshout ECDM, et al. The effect of cerebral palsy on arithmetic accuracy is mediated by working memory, intelligence, early numeracy, and instruction time. Dev Neuropsychol. 2007;3:861–79.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  98. Tager-Flusberg H, Baron-Cohen S, Cohen D. An introduction to the debate. In: Baron-Cohen S, Tager-Flusberg H, Cohen D, editors. Understanding other minds: perspectives from autism. Oxford: Oxford University Press; 1993.

    Google Scholar 

  99. Dunn J, Brown J, Slomkowski C, et al. Young children’s understanding of other people’s feelings and beliefs: individual differences and their antecedents. Child Dev. 1991;62:1352–66.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  100. Dunn J. The Emanuel Miller memorial lecture 1995. Children’s relationships: capital bridging the divide between cognitive and social development. J Child Psychol Psyc 1996;37:507-518.

    Google Scholar 

  101. Harris D. Communicative interaction processes involving non-vocal physically handicap children. Topics in Language Dis. 1982;2:21–37.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  102. Pirilä S, Nieminen P, Seppänen R-L, et al. The play of disabled children in early development. In: Hujala E, ed. Childhood Education – International Perspectives. Oulu: Education Center, University of Oulu, Finland Association for Childhood Education International, 1996:209-222.

    Google Scholar 

  103. Pirila S, van der Meere JJ, Seppanen R-L, et al. A pilot study on children with limitations in self-care, mobility and social functions. Effects on family strengths. Families in Soc 2006;87:285-292.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  104. Bjorgaas HM, Elgen I, Ryland HK, Hysing M. Autism spectrum symptoms in children with cerebral palsy: prevalence and co-occurring conditions. Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders. 2014;8:581–8.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  105. Thomas M, Karmiloff-Smith A. Are developmental disorders like cases of adult brain damage? Implications from connectionist modelling. Behav Brain Sci. 2002;25:727–88.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  106. Levine SC, Kraus R, Alexander E, et al. IQ decline following early unilateral brain injury: a longitudinal study. Brain Cognition. 2005;59:114–23.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  107. Beckung E, Carlsson G, Carlsdotter S, et al. The natural history of gross motor development in children with cerebral palsy aged 1 to 16 years. Dev Med Child Neurol. 2007;49:751–6.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  108. Rosenbaum P, Palisano RJ, Bartlett DJ, et al. Development of the Gross Motor Function Classification System for cerebral palsy. Dev Med Child Neurol. 2008;50:249–53.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  109. Shewmon DA, Holmes GL, Byrne PA. Consciousness in congenitally decorticate children: developmental vegetative state as self-fulfilling prophecy. Dev Med Child Neurol. 1999;41:364–74.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  110. Watson L, Stanley F, Blair E. Report of the Western Australian Cerebral Palsy Register - to the Birth Year 1994. Perth: Western Australian Cerebral Palsy Register; 1999.

    Google Scholar 

  111. Sattler JM. Assessment of children. 3rd ed. San Diego: Author; 1988.

    Google Scholar 

  112. McCarty SM, St James P, Berninger VW, et al. Assessment of intellectual functioning across the life span in severe cerebral palsy. Dev Med Child Neurol. 1986;28:369–72.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  113. Byrne JM, Dywan CA, Connolly JF. An innovative method to assess the receptive vocabulary of children with cerebral palsy using event-related brain potentials. J Clin Exp Neuropsyc. 1995;17:9–19.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  114. Yin Foo R, Guppy M, Johnston LM. Intelligence assessment for children with cerebral palsy: a systematic review. Dev Med Child Neurol. 2013;55:911–8.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  115. Hakkarainen E, Pirilä S, Kaartinen J, et al. Visual attention study in youth with spastic cerebral palsy using the event-related potential method. J Child Neurol. 2011;26:1525–8.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  116. Hakkarainen E, Pirilä S, Kaartinen J, et al. Stimulus evaluation, event preparation, and motor action planning in young patients with mild spastic CP: an event-related brain potential study. J Child Neurol. 2012;27:455–70.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  117. Hakkarainen E, Pirilä S, Kaartinen J, et al. Error detection and response adjustment in youth with mild spastic CP: and event-related brain potential study. J Child Neurol. 2013;28:752–7.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  118. Hakkarainen E, Pirilä S, Kaartinen J, et al. Brain state before error making in young patients with mild spastic cerebral palsy. J Child Neurol. 2015;30:1–7.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  119. Heldmann M, Rüsseler J, Münthe TF. Internal and external information in error processing. BMC Neuroscience. 2008;9:1–8.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  120. Di Lieto MC, Brovedani P, Pecini C, et al. Spastic diplegia in preterm-born children: executive function impairment and neuroanatomical correlates. Res Dev Disabil. 2017;61:116–26.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  121. World Health Organization. International Classification of Functioning, Disability and Health. Geneva: World Health Organization; 2001.

    Google Scholar 

  122. Simeonsson RJ, Leonardi M, Lollar D, et al. Applying the International Classification of Functioning, Disability and Health (ICF) to measure childhood disability. Disabil Rehabil. 2003;25:602–10.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  123. Coster WJ, Haley SM. Conceptualization and measurement of disablement in infants and young children. Infants and Young Children. 1992;4:11–22.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  124. Palisano R, Rosenbaum P, Walter S, et al. Gross Motor Function Classification System for Cerebral Palsy. Dev Med Child Neurol. 1997;39:214–23.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  125. Russell DJ, Rosenbaum PL, Cadman DT, et al. The gross motor function measure: a means to evaluate the effects of physical therapy. Dev Med Child Neurol. 1989;31:341–52.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  126. Harvey A, Robin J, Morris ME, et al. A systematic review of measures of activity limitation for children with cerebral palsy. Dev Med Child Neurol. 2008;50:190–8.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  127. Russell DJ, Rosenbaum PL, Avery LM, et al. Gross Motor Function Measure (GMFM 88 & GMFM 66). User’s Manual. Clinics in Developmental Medicine, No. 159. London: Mac Keith Press, 2002.

    Google Scholar 

  128. Eliasson A-C, Krumlinde-Sundholm L, Rösblad B, et al. The Manual Ability Classification System (MACS) for children with cerebral palsy: scale development and evidence of validity and reliability. Dev Med Child Neurol. 2006;48:549–54.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  129. Morris C, Kurinczuk JJ, Fitzpatrick R, et al. Reliability of the Manual Ability Classification System for children with cerebral palsy. Dev Med Child Neurol. 2006;48:950–3.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  130. McLaughlin J, Bjornson K, Temkin N, et al. Selective dorsal rhizotomy: meta-analysis of three randomized controlled trials. Dev Med Child Neurol. 2002;44:17–25.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  131. Blauw-Hospers CH, Hadders-Algra M. A systematic review of the effects of early intervention on motor development. Dev Med Child Neurol. 2005;47:421–32.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  132. Shonkoff JP, Meisels SJ. Handbook of Early Childhood Intervention. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press; 2000.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  133. Novak I. Evidence-based diagnosis, health care, and rehabilitation for children with cerebral palsy. J Child Neurol. 2014;29:1141–56.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  134. Sterba JA. Does horseback riding therapy or therapist-directed hippotherapy rehabilitate children with cerebral palsy? Dev Med Child Neurol. 2007;49:68–73.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  135. Hadders-Algra M. Early diagnosis and early intervention in cerebral palsy. Front Neurol. 2014;5:1–13.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  136. Jansen LMC, Ketelaar M, Vermeer A. Parental experience of participation in physical therapy for children with physical disabilities. Dev Med Child Neurol. 2003;45:58–69.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  137. Dunst CJ. Family-centered practices: birth through high-school. J Spec Edu. 2002;36:139–47.

    Google Scholar 

  138. Brehaut JC, Kohen DE, Raina P, et al. The health of primary caregivers of children with cerebral palsy: How does it compare with that of other Canadian caregivers? Pediatrics. 2004;114:182–91.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  139. Pirila S, van der Meere JJ, Seppanen R-L, et al. Children with functional motor limitations: the effects on family strengths. Child Psych Hum Dev. 2005;35:281–95.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  140. Guyard A, Michelsen SI, Arnaud S, et al. Family adaptation to cerebral palsy in adolescents: an european multicenter study. Res Dev Disabil. 2017;61:138–50.

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  141. Ekström Ahl L, Johansson E, Granat T, et al. Functional therapy for children with cerebral palsy: an ecological approach. Dev Med Child Neurol. 2005;47:613–9.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  142. World Health Organization. International Classification of Impairments, Disabilities and Handicaps. Geneva: World Health Organization; 1980.

    Google Scholar 

  143. Bemister TB, Brooks BL, Dyck RH, et al. Parent and family impact of raising a child with perinatal stroke. BMC Pediatr. 2014;14:1–11.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  144. Cicerone KD, Langenbahn DM, Braden C, et al. Evidence-based cognitive rehabilitation: updated review of the literature from 2003 through 2008. Arch Phys Med Rehab. 2011;92:519–30.

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Pediatrics, Tampere University Hospital, Tampere, Finland

    Silja Pirilä

  2. Department of Clinical and Developmental Neuropsychology, University of Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands

    Jaap J. van der Meere

Authors
  1. Silja Pirilä
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Jaap J. van der Meere
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Silja Pirilä .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. Perelman School of Medicine of the University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA

    Carol L. Armstrong

  2. Western Psychiatric Institute and Clinic, Pittsburgh, PA, USA

    Lisa A. Morrow

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2019 Springer Nature Switzerland AG

About this chapter

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this chapter

Pirilä, S., van der Meere, J.J. (2019). Cerebral Palsy: Effects of Early Brain Injury on Development. In: Armstrong, C., Morrow, L. (eds) Handbook of Medical Neuropsychology. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-14895-9_11

Download citation

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation