Abstract
Children enter kindergarten with considerable differences in numeracy (Jordan et al. in Dev Psychol 45(3), 850–867, 2009). These differences, prior to formal schooling, may not initially seem important. However, kindergarten numeracy skills predict later mathematics achievement and general academic achievement (Duncan et al. in Dev Psychol 43(6), 1428–1446, 2007; Romano et al. in Dev Psychol 46(5), 995–1007, 2010). Children who enter school with poor numeracy skills do not catch up (Aunola et al. in Journal of Educational Psychol, 096(4), 699–713, 2004), likely due to the lack of early identification and intervention tools. Poor numeracy skills are a serious long-term concern; numeracy is at least as important as literacy for employment outcomes, including obtaining and retaining a job, and income level (Bynner and Parsons in Does Numeracy Matter? Evidence from the National Child Development Study on the Impact of Poor Numeracy on Adult Life. The Basic Skills Agency, London, England 1997; Parsons and Bynner in Educ Train, 39(2), 43–51, 1997; Ritchie and Bates in Psychol Sci 24(7), 1301–1308, 2013). Thus, research focused on developing tools to assess and improve children’s numeracy skills early on is critical. Using research from longitudinal studies, we identified cognitive predictors of numeracy skills. Evidence-based early screening tools, which allow teachers and researchers to predict, in kindergarten , which children will struggle to gain numeracy skills are also identified. Finally, criteria for evaluating the efficacy of early school-based interventions are provided and applied to existing early numeracy interventions for at-risk students. This interdisciplinary work, combining findings from education, cognitive science, and psychology, has direct applications for early identification, instruction, and intervention in the classroom, with the goal of improving the long-term outcomes of students.
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Notes
- 1.
LeFevre et al. (2010) focused specifically on spatial attention (or visuospatial working memory), but research has demonstrated a developmental trend from a contribution for visuospatial working memory to verbal working memory in mathematics (Krajewski & Schneider, 2009; McKenzie, Bull & Gray, 2003; Rasmussen & Bisanz, 2005), so in the current chapter we expand this predictor to working memory more generally.
- 2.
Non-symbolic number comparison, however, should not be considered as a developmental precursor that facilitates symbolic comparison performance, as evidence suggests that the direction of this relation is actually the reverse—improvement in symbolic number comparison facilitates performance on non-symbolic comparison (Lyons, Bugden, Zheng, De Jesus, & Ansari, 2017).
- 3.
One reason is the possibility of regression to the mean. Children identified as at risk based on one time point may show improvement in later time points simply because they underperformed on that particular test relative to their actual ability.
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Penner, M., Buckland, C., Moes, M. (2019). Early Identification of, and Interventions for, Kindergarten Students at Risk for Mathematics Difficulties. In: Robinson, K., Osana, H., Kotsopoulos, D. (eds) Mathematical Learning and Cognition in Early Childhood. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-12895-1_5
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