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EU Post-crisis Economic and Financial Market Regulation

Embedding Member States’ Interests Within “More Europe”

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Between Compliance and Particularism

Abstract

In the wake of financial and economic crisis, the European Union took unprecedented steps to build an institutional framework for financial market governance in Europe. This chapter will examine the EU law techniques used to integrate the interests of the Member States in setting up and operating that framework. Following a brief overview and recapitulation of the developments having taken shape in the wake of crisis brining “more Europe” in this policy domain, the chapter will look at how Member States’ interests have been embedded directly into the post-crisis EU regulatory framework. It will be submitted that two different and complementary kinds of “interest-inclusion” techniques can be identified, more or less explicitly, within the newly created financial market supervision frameworks. This inclusion and presumed safeguarding of Member States’ interests by virtue of administrative law tools is not entirely unproblematic. There are clear challenges associated with such solutions for “interest-inclusion” which question whether there is a modest way forward in attempting to improve the legitimacy of such arrangements.

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Notes

  1. 1.

    See for a similar, more general perspective, already Milward (2000).

  2. 2.

    Directive 2004/109/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 15 December 2004 on the harmonisation of transparency requirements in relation to information about issuers whose securities are admitted to trading on a regulated market and amending Directive 2001/34/EC, [2004] OJ L390/38, amended since by Directive 2013/50/EU of the European Parliament and of the Council of 22 October 2013, [2013] OJ L294/13.

  3. 3.

    Directive 2003/6/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 28 January 2003 on insider dealing and market manipulation (market abuse), [2003] OJ L96/16, in the meantime replaced by Regulation (EU) 596/2014 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 16 April 2014 on market abuse (market abuse regulation) and repealing Directive 2003/6/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council and Commission Directives 2003/124/EC, 2003/125/EC and 2004/72/EC, [2014] OJ L173/1.

  4. 4.

    Directive 2003/71/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 4 November 2003 on the prospectus to be published when securities are offered to the public or admitted to trading and amending Directive 2001/34/EC, [2003] OJ L345/64, in the meantime replaced by Regulation (EU) 2017/1129 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 14 June 2017 on the prospectus to be published when securities are offered to the public or admitted to trading on a regulated market, and repealing Directive 2003/71/EC, [2017] OJ L168/12.

  5. 5.

    Directive 2004/39/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 21 April 2004 on markets in financial instruments amending Council Directives 85/611/EEC and 93/6/EEC and Directive 2000/12/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council and repealing Council Directive 93/22/EEC, [2004] OJ L145/1, in the meantime replaced by Directive 2014/65/EU of the European Parliament and of the Council of 15 May 2014 on markets in financial instruments and amending Directive 2002/92/EC and Directive 2011/61/EU, [2014] OJ L173/349 and Regulation (EU) 600/2014 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 15 May 2014 on markets in financial instruments and amending Regulation (EU) 648/2012, [2014] OJ L173/84.

  6. 6.

    For an overview of national implementing rules, see European Commission (2014).

  7. 7.

    Regulation (EU) 1092/2010 of 24 November 2010 of the European Parliament and Council, [2010] OJ L331/1 (ESRB Regulation).

  8. 8.

    Article 4 ESRB Regulation.

  9. 9.

    Regulations (EU) 1093–1095/2010 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 24 November 2010, [2010] OJ L331/12–119 (hereinafter, collectively referred to as the ESA Regulations).

  10. 10.

    Even though the regulations refer to them as “authorities”, they function and operate as regulatory agencies, see Moloney (2010), p. 1341.

  11. 11.

    See, on these committees, Van Gerven (2006), pp. 57–60.

  12. 12.

    Article 5 ESA Regulations.

  13. 13.

    Article 10 ESA Regulations.

  14. 14.

    Articles 17–18 ESA Regulations.

  15. 15.

    See, essentially on the validation of those powers, Judgment of 22 January 2014, United Kingdom v Council and Parliament, C-270/12, EU:C:2014:18.

  16. 16.

    Directive 2013/36/EU of the European Parliament and of the Council of 26 June 2013 on access to the activity of credit institutions and the prudential supervision of credit institutions and investment firms, amending Directive 2002/87/EC and repealing Directives 2006/48/EC and 2006/49/EC, [2013] OJ L176/338 and Directive 2009/138/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 25 November 2009 on the taking-up and pursuit of the business of Insurance and Reinsurance (Solvency II), [2009] OJ L335/1.

  17. 17.

    Directive 2011/61/EU of the European Parliament and of the Council of 8 June 2011, [2011] OJ L174/1.

  18. 18.

    Regulation 1060/2009 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 16 September 2009 on credit rating agencies, [2009] OJ L302/1, amended in 2011 and 2013.

  19. 19.

    This is the so-called European Market Infrastructure Regulation or EMIR. See Regulation (EU) 648/2012 of the European Parliament and of the Council, [2012] OJ L201/1.

  20. 20.

    Regulation (EU) 236/2012 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 14 March 2012 on short selling and certain aspects of credit default swaps, [2012] OJ L86/1.

  21. 21.

    Regulation (EU) 2015/2365 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 25 November 2015 on transparency of securities financing transactions and of reuse and amending Regulation (EU) 648/2012, [2015] OJ L337/1.

  22. 22.

    For more information, see https://ec.europa.eu/info/business-economy-euro/banking-and-finance/banking-union_en. Accessed 18 Oct 2017.

  23. 23.

    On the EU single rulebook in more detail, see Van Cleynenbreugel (2015).

  24. 24.

    Adopted by the European Parliament and the Council on 16 November 2011, the “six-pack” comprises Regulation (EU) 1173/2011 on the effective enforcement of budgetary surveillance in the euro area, [2011] OJ L306/1; Regulation (EU) 1174/2011 on enforcement measures to correct excessive macroeconomic imbalances in the euro area, [2011] OJ L306/8; Regulation (EU) 1175/2011 amending Council Regulation (EC) 1466/97 on the strengthening of the surveillance of budgetary positions and the surveillance and coordination of economic policies, [2011] OJ L306/12; Regulation (EU) 1176/2011 on the prevention and correction of macroeconomic imbalances, [2011] OJ L306/25; Regulation (EU) 1177/2011 of 8 November 2011 amending Regulation (EC) 1467/97 on speeding up and clarifying the implementation of the excessive deficit procedure, [2011] OJ L306/33 and Council Directive 2011/85 on requirements for budgetary frameworks of the Member States, [2011] OJ L306/41.

  25. 25.

    Adopted by the European Parliament and Council on 21 May 2013, it comprises Regulation (EU) 472/2013 on the strengthening of economic and budgetary surveillance of Member States in the euro area experiencing or threatened with serious difficulties with respect to their financial stability, [2013] OJ L140/1 and Regulation (EU) 473/2013 on common provisions for monitoring and assessing draft budgetary plans and ensuring the correction of excessive deficit of the Member States in the euro area, [2013] OJ L140/11.

  26. 26.

    For more information, see https://ec.europa.eu/info/business-economy-euro/economic-and-fiscal-policy-coordination/eu-economic-governance-monitoring-prevention-correction/stability-and-growth-pact_en. Accessed 18 Oct 2017.

  27. 27.

    Council Regulation (EU) 407/2010 of 11 May 2010 establishing a European Financial Stabilisation Mechanism, [2010] OJ L118/1, based on Article 122(2) TFEU. That provision states that where a Member State is in difficulties or is seriously threatened with severe difficulties caused by natural disasters or exceptional occurrences beyond its control, the Council, on a proposal from the Commission, may grant, under certain conditions, Union financial assistance to the Member State concerned.

  28. 28.

    See for background, https://www.esm.europa.eu/efsf-overview. Accessed 18 Oct 2017.

  29. 29.

    Based upon newly inserted Article 136(3) TFEU, the validity of which was confirmed in Judgment of 27 November 2012, Thomas Pringle, C-370/12, EU:C:2012:756.

  30. 30.

    See https://ec.europa.eu/info/business-economy-euro/growth-and-investment/capital-markets-union_en. Accessed 18 Oct 2017.

  31. 31.

    Council Regulation (EU) 1024/2013 of 15 October 2013 conferring specific tasks on the European Central Bank concerning policies relating to the prudential supervision of credit institutions, [2013] OJ L287/63.

  32. 32.

    Article 7 Regulation 1024/2013.

  33. 33.

    Article 3 Regulation 1024/2013.

  34. 34.

    See Article 2(1) Regulation 1024/2013.

  35. 35.

    Article 4(3) Regulation 1024/2013.

  36. 36.

    Article 4(2) Regulation 1024/2013.

  37. 37.

    See Article 1(1) Regulation 1022/2013 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 22 October 2013 amending Regulation (EU) 1093/2010 establishing a European Supervisory Authority (European Banking Authority) as regards the conferral of specific tasks on the European Central Bank pursuant to Council Regulation (EU) 1024/2013, [2013] OJ L287/5.

  38. 38.

    On the implications of this system, see Wolfers and Voland (2014).

  39. 39.

    Regulation (EU) 806/2014 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 15 July 2014 establishing uniform rules and a uniform procedure for the resolution of credit institutions and certain investment firms in the framework of a Single Resolution Mechanism and a Single Resolution Fund and amending Regulation (EU) 1093/2010, [2014] OJ L337/1. The regulation was preceded by Directive 2014/59/EU of the European Parliament and of the Council of 15 May 2014 establishing a framework for the recovery and resolution of credit institutions and investment firms and amending Council Directive 82/891/EEC, and Directives 2001/24/EC, 2002/47/EC, 2004/25/EC, 2005/56/EC, 2007/36/EC, 2011/35/EU, 2012/30/EU and 2013/36/EU, and Regulations (EU) 1093/2010 and (EU) 648/2012, of the European Parliament and of the Council, [2014] OJ L173/190, requiring inter alia the Member States to establish national resolution authorities.

  40. 40.

    Article 7(2) Regulation 806/2014.

  41. 41.

    Article 42(1) Regulation 806/2014.

  42. 42.

    Article 7(3) Regulation 806/2014.

  43. 43.

    Although not necessarily and deliberately envisaged as such, see Lefterov (2015), pp. 10–11.

  44. 44.

    By means of a system called the European Semester, see https://ec.europa.eu/info/strategy/european-semester_en. Accessed 18 Oct 2017.

  45. 45.

    Given that the European Stability Mechanism as such does not form part of the EU institutional framework in the strictest sense, this section will only look at the European Supervisory Authorities in financial services (EBA, EIOPA and ESMA, jointly referred to as the ESAs) and the single supervisory and resolution mechanisms within the Eurozone.

  46. 46.

    Articles 6 and 40–53 ESA Regulations.

  47. 47.

    Article 44(1) ESA Regulations. In particular instances of settlement of supervisory disputes, the Board of Supervisors shall decide by means of simple majority; the proposal can, however, be blocked by a qualified majority, see Articles 44(1)–(4).

  48. 48.

    Article 29 ESA Regulations.

  49. 49.

    Article 29(2) ESA Regulations.

  50. 50.

    See Article 30(1) ESA Regulations. The regulation particularly states that this is necessary to further strengthen consistency in supervisory outcomes.

  51. 51.

    Article 26(8) Regulation 1024/2013.

  52. 52.

    Article 26(1) Regulation 1024/2013.

  53. 53.

    Article 24(8) Regulation 1024/2013.

  54. 54.

    Article 24(8) Regulation 1024/2013.

  55. 55.

    Articles 24(6)–(7) Regulation 1024/2013.

  56. 56.

    For a critique that this contributes to the “weak centralisation” image in EU banking supervision, see Ferrarini (2015).

  57. 57.

    Article 12 Regulation 1024/2013.

  58. 58.

    Article 14(2) Regulation 1024/2013.

  59. 59.

    Article 3 Regulation 1024/2013.

  60. 60.

    Article 6(6) Regulation 1024/2013.

  61. 61.

    Article 4 read together with Article 17(1) Regulation 1024/2013.

  62. 62.

    Member States are also—obviously—represented through their participation in the decision-making processes of the Council. In that capacity, Member States retain important responsibilities in outlining, determining and shaping the legislative texts, see Article 16(2) TEU.

  63. 63.

    Moloney (2011) at 79 identifies this feature as a fiscal “get-out” clause.

  64. 64.

    Articles 38(3) ESA Regulations.

  65. 65.

    Articles 38(5) ESA Regulations.

  66. 66.

    As procedures are directly addressed to a competent authority, the procedure differs from those initiated under Article 258 TFEU in which the Commission addresses Member States’ action or inaction, see Wymeersch (2012), p. 256.

  67. 67.

    Article 17(1) ESA Regulations. For an overview of acts falling within the ESA Regulations, see Wymeersch (2012), p. 246. The regulations clarify that the ESAs may only act whenever the relevant substantive law requirements at stake are directly applicable to financial market participants by virtue of existing or future Union regulations. Most fundamental financial services law provisions can be found in directives, which are not directly applicable per Article 289 TFEU.

  68. 68.

    Tridimas argues that an informal settlement could equally be reached within this time frame, see Tridimas (2012), p. 72.

  69. 69.

    Article 17(2) ESA Regulations.

  70. 70.

    Article 17(3) ESA Regulations.

  71. 71.

    Article 17(4) ESA Regulations. In doing so, the Commission shall take the ESA’s recommendation into account.

  72. 72.

    Article 17(4) ESA Regulations.

  73. 73.

    Article 17(7) ESA Regulations.

  74. 74.

    Article 17(6) ESA Regulations.

  75. 75.

    Article 17(7) ESA Regulations.

  76. 76.

    Wymeersch argues that the “own initiative” reference should be comprehended as allowing for private parties involved in the subject to call upon the ESA directly, Wymeersch (2012), p. 268.

  77. 77.

    Article 19(1) ESA Regulations.

  78. 78.

    Article 19(3) ESA Regulations.

  79. 79.

    Articles 41(2)-(3) ESA Regulations.

  80. 80.

    Article 44(1) ESA Regulations.

  81. 81.

    See Regulation 1022/2013 in that respect.

  82. 82.

    For an overview, see Van Cleynenbreugel (2014).

  83. 83.

    For a more developed theoretical framework underlying those structures, see Van Cleynenbreugel (2014).

  84. 84.

    See Article 4(3) TEU.

  85. 85.

    As confirmed by Article 22 Regulation 1024/2013.

  86. 86.

    Article 18(5) Regulation 1024/2013.

  87. 87.

    The starting point for SSM cooperation has been Regulation of the ECB of 16 April 2014 establishing the framework for cooperation within the Single Supervisory Mechanism between the ECB and national competent authorities and with national designated authorities (SSM Framework Regulation), (ECB/2014/17), [2014] OJ L141/1.

  88. 88.

    Available at https://www.eba.europa.eu/regulation-and-policy/single-rulebook/interactive-single-rulebook. Accessed 18 Oct 2017.

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Van Cleynenbreugel, P. (2019). EU Post-crisis Economic and Financial Market Regulation. In: Varju, M. (eds) Between Compliance and Particularism. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-05782-4_4

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