Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

The Effects of Cocoa- and Chocolate-Related Products on Neurocognitive Functioning

  • Chapter
  • First Online:
Chocolate in Health and Nutrition

Part of the book series: Nutrition and Health ((NH,volume 7))

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 129.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 169.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD 219.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

References

  1. Adamson GE, Lazarus SA, Mitchell AE, Prior RL, Cao G, Jacobs PH, et al. HPLC method for the quantification of procyanidins in cocoa and chocolate samples and correlation to total antioxidant capacity. J Agric Food Chem. 1999;47(10):4184–8.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  2. Hammerstone JF, Mitchell AE, Lazarus SA, Schmitz H, Keen CL, Rucker RB. Identification of procyanidins in cocoa (Theobroma cacao) using high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC)/mass spectrometry (MS). J Agric Food Chem. 1999;47:490–6.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  3. Steinberg FM, Bearden MM, Keen CL. Cocoa and chocolate flavonoids: implications for cardiovascular health. J Am Diet Assoc. 2003;103(2):215–23.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  4. Kris-Etherton PM, Keen CL. Evidence that the antioxidant flavonoids in tea and cocoa are beneficial for cardiovascular health. Curr Opin Lipidol. 2002;13(1):41–9.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  5. Ding EL, Hutfless SM, Ding X, Girotra S. Chocolate and prevention of cardiovascular disease: a systematic review. Nutr Metab. 2006;3(2):1–12.

    Google Scholar 

  6. Kondo K, Hirano R, Matsumoto A, Igarashi O, Itakura H. Inhibition of LDL oxidation by cocoa. Lancet. 1996;348(9040):1514.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  7. Lotito SB, Actis-Goretta L, Renart ML, et al. Influence of oligomer chain length on the antioxidant activity of procyanidins. Biochem Biophys Res Commun. 2000;276:945–51.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  8. Mathur S, Devaraj S, Grundy SM, Jialal I. Cocoa products decrease low density lipoprotein oxidative susceptibility but do not affect biomarkers of inflammation in humans. J Nutr. 2002;132(12):3663–7.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  9. Osakabe N, Yasuda A, Natsume M, Takizawa T, Terao J, Kondo K. Catechins and their oligomers linked by C4 □ C8 bonds are major cacao polyphenols and protect low-density lipoprotein from oxidation in vitro. Exp Biol Med. 2002;227(1):51–6.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  10. Tokede OA, Gaziano JM, Djousse L. Effects of cocoa products/dark chocolate on serum lipids: a meta-analysis. Eur J Clin Nutr 2011; E-pub. Available at: http://www.nature.com/ejcn/journal/vaop/ncurrent/full/ejcn201164a.html. Accessed 24 May 2011.

  11. Wan Y, Vinson JA, Etherton TD, Proch J, Lazarus SA, Kris-Etherton PM. Effects of cocoa powder and dark chocolate on LDL oxidative susceptibility and prostaglandin concentrations in humans. Am J Clin Nutr. 2001;74:596–602.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  12. Waterhouse AL, Shirley JR, Donovan JL. Antioxidants in chocolate. Lancet. 1996;348(9030):834.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  13. Holt RR, Schramm DD, Keen CL, Lazarus SA, Schmitz HH. Chocolate consumption and platelet function. JAMA. 2002;287(17):2212–3.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  14. Murphy KJ, Chronopoulos AK, Singh I, Francis MA, Moriarty H, Pike MJ, et al. Dietary flavanols and procyanidin oligomers from cocoa (Theobroma cacao) inhibit platelet function. Am J Clin Nutr. 2003;77:1466–73.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  15. Pearson DA, Paglieroni TG, Rein D, Wun T, Schramm DD, Wang JF, et al. The effects of flavanol-rich cocoa and aspirin on ex vivo platelet function. Thromb Res. 2002;106:191–7.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  16. Rein D, Paglieroni TG, Pearson DA, Wun T, Schmitz HH, Gosselin R, et al. Cocoa and wine polyphenols modulate platelet activation and function. J Nutr. 2000;130:2120S–6.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  17. Rein D, Paglieroni TG, Wun T, Pearson DA, Schmitz HH, Gosselin R, et al. Cocoa inhibits platelet activation and function. Am J Clin Nutr. 2000;72:30–5.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  18. Grassi D, Necozione S, Lippi C, Croce G, Valeri L, Pasqualetti P, et al. Cocoa reduces blood pressure and insulin resistance and improves endothelium-dependent vasodilation in hypertensives. Hypertension. 2005;46:398–405.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  19. Mursu J, Voutilainen S, Nurmi T, Rissanen TH, Virtanen JK, Kaikkonen J, et al. Dark chocolate consumption increases HDL cholesterol concentration and chocolate fatty acids may inhibit lipid perioxidation in healthy humans. Free Radic Biol Med. 2004;37(9):1351–9.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  20. Schramm DD, Wang JF, Holt RR, Ensunsa JL, Gonsalves JL, Lazarus SA, et al. Chocolate procyanidins decrease the leukotriene-prostacyclin ratio in humans and human aortic endothelial cells. Am J Clin Nutr. 2001;73:36–40.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  21. Desch S, Schmidt J, Kobler D, Sonnabend M, Eitel I, Sareban M, et al. Effect of cocoa products on blood pressure: systematic review and meta-analysis. Am J Hypertens. 2010;23(1):97–103.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  22. Grassi D, Lippi C, Necozione S, Desideri G, Ferri C. Short-term administration of dark chocolate is followed by a significant increase in insulin sensitivity and a decrease in blood pressure in healthy persons. Am J Clin Nutr. 2005;81:611–4.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  23. Ried K, Sullivan T, Fakler P, Frank OR, Stocks NP. Does chocolate reduce blood pressure? A meta-analysis. BMC Med 2010; 8(39): Available at: http://www.biomedcentral.com/1741-7015/8/39. Accessed 24 May 2011.

  24. Taubert D, Berkels R, Roesen R, Klaus W. Chocolate and blood pressure in elderly individuals with isolated systolic hypertension. JAMA. 2003;290(8):1029–30.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  25. Taubert D, Roesen R, Lehmann C, Jung N, Schomig E. Effects of low habitual cocoa intake on blood pressure and bioactive nitric oxide: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA. 2007;298(1):49–60.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  26. Taubert D, Roesen R, Schomig E. Effect of cocoa and tea on blood pressure: a meta-analysis. Arch Intern Med. 2007;167(7):626–34.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  27. Faridi Z, Njike VY, Dutta S, Ali A, Katz DL. Acute dark chocolate and cocoa ingestion and endothelial function: a randomized controlled crossover trial. Am J Clin Nutr. 2008;88(1):58–63.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  28. Fisher NDL, Hughes M, Gerhard-Herman M, Hollenberg NK. Flavanol-rich cocoa induces nitric-oxide-dependent vasodilation in healthy humans. J Hypertens. 2003;21:2281–6.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  29. Heiss C, Dejam A, Kleinbongard P, Schewe T, Sies H, Kelm M. Vascular effects of cocoa rich in flavan-3-ols. JAMA. 2003;290(8):1030–1.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  30. Karim M, McCormick K, Kappagoda CT. Effects of cocoa extracts on endothelium-dependent relaxation. J Nutr. 2000;130:2105S–8.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  31. Dinges DF. Cocoa flavanols, cerebral blood flow, cognition, and health: going forward. J Cardiovasc Pharmacol. 2006;47(Suppl. 2):S221–3.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  32. Fisher NDL, Sorond FA, Hollenberg NK. Cocoa flavanols and brain perfusion. J Cardiovasc Pharmacol. 2006;47(Suppl 2):S210–4.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  33. Francis ST, Head K, Morris PG, MacDonald IA. The effect of flavanol-rich cocoa on the fMRI response to a cognitive task in healthy young people. J Cardiovasc Pharmacol. 2006;47(Suppl 2):S215–20.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  34. Sorond FA, Lipsitz LA, Hollenberg NK, Fisher NDL. Cerebral blood flow response to flavanol-rich cocoa in healthy elderly humans. Neuropsychiatr Dis Treat. 2008;4(2):433–40.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  35. Zhu QY, Holt RR, Lazarus SA, Orozco TJ, Keen CL. Inhibitory effects of cocoa flavanols and procyanidin oligomers on free radical-induced erythrocyte hemolysis. Exp Biol Med. 2002;227:321–9.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  36. Mao TK, Powell J, Van de Water J, Keen CL, Schmitz HH, Hammerstone JF, et al. The effect of cocoa procyanidins on the transcription and secretion of interleukin 1β in peripheral blood mononuclear cells. Life Sci. 2000;66(15):1377–86.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  37. Mao T, Van de Water J, Keen CL, Schmitz HH, Gershwin ME. Cocoa procyanidins and human cytokine transcription and secretion. J Nutr. 2000;130:2093S–9.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  38. Sanbongi C, Suzuki N, Sakane T. Polyphenols in chocolate, which have antioxidant activity, modulate immune functions in humans in vitro. Cell Immunol. 1997;177:129–36.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  39. Smit HJ, Gaffan EA, Rogers PJ. Methylxanthines are the psycho-pharmacologically active constituents of chocolate. Psychopharmacology. 2004;176:412–9.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  40. Crews WD Jr, Harrison DW, Wright JW. A double-blind, placebo-controlled, randomized trial of the effects of dark chocolate and cocoa on variables associated with neuropsychological functioning and cardiovascular health: clinical findings from a sample of healthy, cognitively intact older adults. Am J Clin Nutr. 2008;87:872–80.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  41. Nurk E, Refsum H, Drevon CA, Tell GS, Nygaard HA, Engedal K, et al. Intake of flavonoid-rich wine, tea, and chocolate by elderly men and women is associated with better cognitive test performance. J Nutr. 2009;139:120–7.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  42. Scholey AB, French SJ, Morris PJ, Kennedy DO, Milne AL, Haskell CF. Consumption of cocoa flavanols results in acute improvements in mood and cognitive performance during sustained mental effort. J Psychopharmacol. 2010;24(10):1505–14.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  43. Field DT, Williams CM, Butler LT. Consumption of cocoa flavanols results in an acute improvement in visual and cognitive functions. Physiol Behav. 2011;103:255–60.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  44. Rozan P, Hidalgo S, Nejdi A, Bisson JF, Lalonde R, Messaoudi M. Preventive antioxidant effects of cocoa polyphenolic extract on free radical production and cognitive performances after heat exposure in Wistar rats. J Food Sci. 2007;72(3):S203–6.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  45. Bisson JF, Nejdi A, Rozan P, Hidalgo S, Lalonde R, Messaoudi M. Effects of long-term administration of a cocoa polyphenolic extract (Acticoa powder) on cognitive performances in aged rats. Br J Nutr. 2008;100:94–101.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  46. Smit HJ. Theobromine and the pharmacology of cocoa. In: Fredholm BB, editor. Methylxanthines, handbook of experimental pharmacology 200. Berlin: Springer; 2011. p. 201–34.

    Google Scholar 

  47. Keen CL. Chocolate: food as medicine/medicine as food. J Am Coll Nutr. 2001;20(5):436S–9.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  48. Jalil AMM, Ismail A. Polyphenols in cocoa and cocoa products: is there a link between antioxidant properties and health? Molecules. 2008;13:2190–219.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  49. Spencer JPE. Food for thought: the role of dietary flavonoids in enhancing human memory, learning and neuro-cognitive performance. Proc Nutr Soc. 2008;67:238–52.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  50. Spencer JPE. Flavonoids: modulators of brain function? Br J Nutr. 2008;99:ES60–77.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  51. Vauzour D, Vafeiadou K, Rodriguez-Mateos A, Rendeiro C, Spencer JPE. The neuroprotective potential of flavonoids: a multiplicity of effects. Genes Nutr. 2008;3:115–26.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  52. Spencer JPE. Flavonoids and brain health: multiple effects underpinned by common mechanisms. Genes Nutr. 2009;4:243–50.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  53. Spencer JPE, Vauzour D, Rendeiro C. Flavonoids and cognition: the molecular mechanisms underlying their behavioural effects. Arch Biochem Biophys. 2009;492:1–9.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  54. Spencer JPE. The impact of fruit flavonoids on memory and cognition. Br J Nutr. 2010;104:S40–7.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  55. Spencer JPE. The impact of flavonoids on memory: physiological and molecular considerations. Chem Soc Rev. 2009;38:1152–61.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  56. Patel AK, Rogers JT, Huang X. Flavanols, mild cognitive impairment, and Alzheimer’s dementia. Int J Clin Exp Med. 2008;1:181–91.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  57. Shah ZA, Li R, Ahmad AS, Kensler TW, Yamamoto M, Biswal S, et al. The flavanol (−)-epicatechin prevents stroke damage through the Nrf2/HO1 pathway. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab. 2010;30:1951–61.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  58. Wechsler D. WMS-III administration and scoring manual. San Antonio: The Psychological Corporation; 1997.

    Google Scholar 

  59. Reitan RM. Trail making test manual for administration and scoring. Tucson: Reitan Neuropsychology Laboratory; 1992.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Behavioral Neuroscience Laboratory, Department of Psychology, Virginia Polytechnic Institute & State University, Blacksburg, VA, USA

    W. David Crews Jr. Ph.D. & David W. Harrison Ph.D.

  2. Department of Early Childhood Education, Virginia Western Community College, Roanoke, VA, USA

    Kim P. Gregory M.A.

  3. Department of Psychology, Liberty University, Lynchburg, VA, USA

    Bon Kim B.S.

  4. Behavioral Neuroscience Laboratory, Department of Psychology, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, VA, USA

    Allison B. Darling B.S.

Authors
  1. W. David Crews Jr. Ph.D.
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. David W. Harrison Ph.D.
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Kim P. Gregory M.A.
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Bon Kim B.S.
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. Allison B. Darling B.S.
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to W. David Crews Jr. Ph.D. .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. Health Sciences Center, Department of Health Promotion Sciences, University of Arizona, 1295 N. Martin Ave. 1295, Tucson, 85724-5155, Arizona, USA

    Ronald Ross Watson

  2. Dept. Nutrition & Dietetics, King's College, Stamford St. 150, London, SE1 9NH, United Kingdom

    Victor R. Preedy

  3. Division of Health Promotion Sciences, Mel and Enid Zuckerman, University of Arizona, 1295 N. Martin Avenue, Tucson, 85724, Arizona, USA

    Sherma Zibadi

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2013 Springer Science+Business Media, LLC

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Crews, W.D., Harrison, D.W., Gregory, K.P., Kim, B., Darling, A.B. (2013). The Effects of Cocoa- and Chocolate-Related Products on Neurocognitive Functioning. In: Watson, R., Preedy, V., Zibadi, S. (eds) Chocolate in Health and Nutrition. Nutrition and Health, vol 7. Humana Press, Totowa, NJ. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-61779-803-0_27

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-61779-803-0_27

  • Published:

  • Publisher Name: Humana Press, Totowa, NJ

  • Print ISBN: 978-1-61779-802-3

  • Online ISBN: 978-1-61779-803-0

  • eBook Packages: MedicineMedicine (R0)

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation