Abstract
Since the incipiency of psychiatry as a medical specialty, the “holy grail” has been neuroscience-based diagnostic system and treatment strategies, but this lofty, yet necessary, goal has eluded the greatest minds for centuries. Now, with advances in molecular genetics and resting-state neuroimaging, neuroscience-based diagnosis and treatment are now more possible than ever. However, clinical symptomatology, longitudinal course, and delimitation of illnesses (i.e., phenotypic classification) remain indispensable for responsible, reproducible, and meaningful use of these new methodologies.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Change history
03 December 2019
Chapter 2 was published with incorrect family name of the chapter author as Kobiessy.
References
Center for Behavioral Health Statistics and Quality (2017) 2016 National survey on drug use and health: detailed tables. Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration, Rockville, MD
Murray CJL, Lopez AD (2013) Measuring the global burden of disease. N Engl J Med 369:448–457
Vigo D, Thornicroft G, Atun R (2016) Estimating the true global burden of mental illness. Lancet Psychiatry 3:171–178
Murray CJ, Atkinson C, Bhalla K, Birbeck G, Burstein R, Chou D, Dellavalle R, Danaei G, Ezzati M, Fahimi A, Flaxman D, Foreman, Gabriel S, Gakidou E, Kassebaum N, Khatibzadeh S, Lim S, Lipshultz SE, London S, Lopez, MacIntyre MF, Mokdad AH, Moran A, Moran AE, Mozaffarian D, Murphy T, Naghavi M, Pope C, Roberts T, Salomon J, Schwebel DC, Shahraz S, Sleet DA, Murray, Abraham J, Ali MK, Atkinson C, Bartels DH, Bhalla K, Birbeck G, Burstein R, Chen H, Criqui MH, Dahodwala, Jarlais, Ding EL, Dorsey ER, Ebel BE, Ezzati M, Fahami, Flaxman S, Flaxman AD, Gonzalez-Medina D, Grant B, Hagan H, Hoffman H, Kassebaum N, Khatibzadeh S, Leasher JL, Lin J, Lipshultz SE, Lozano R, Lu Y, Mallinger L, McDermott MM, Micha R, Miller TR, Mokdad AA, Mokdad AH, Mozaffarian D, Naghavi M, Narayan KM, Omer SB, Pelizzari PM, Phillips D, Ranganathan D, Rivara FP, Roberts T, Sampson U, Sanman E, Sapkota A, Schwebel DC, Sharaz S, Shivakoti R, Singh GM, Singh D, Tavakkoli M, Towbin JA, Wilkinson JD, Zabetian A, Murray, Abraham J, Ali MK, Alvardo M, Atkinson C, Baddour LM, Benjamin EJ, Bhalla K, Birbeck G, Bolliger I, Burstein R, Carnahan E, Chou D, Chugh SS, Cohen A, Colson KE, Cooper LT, Couser W, Criqui MH, Dabhadkar KC, Dellavalle RP, Jarlais, Dicker D, Dorsey ER, Duber H, Ebel BE, Engell RE, Ezzati M, Felson DT, Finucane MM, Flaxman S, Flaxman AD, Fleming T, Foreman, Forouzanfar MH, Freedman G, Freeman MK, Gakidou E, Gillum RF, Gonzalez-Medina D, Gosselin R, Gutierrez HR, Hagan H, Havmoeller R, Hoffman H, Jacobsen KH, James SL, Jasrasaria R, Jayarman S, Johns N, Kassebaum N, Khatibzadeh S, Lan Q, Leasher JL, Lim S, Lipshultz SE, London S, Lopez, Lozano R, Lu Y, Mallinger L, Meltzer M, Mensah GA, Michaud C, Miller TR, Mock C, Moffitt TE, Mokdad AA, Mokdad AH, Moran A, Naghavi M, Narayan KM, Nelson RG, Olives C, Omer SB, Ortblad K, Ostro B, Pelizzari PM, Phillips D, Raju M, Razavi H, Ritz B, Roberts T, Sacco RL, Salomon J, Sampson U, Schwebel DC, Shahraz S, Shibuya K, Silberberg D, Singh JA, Steenland K, Taylor JA, Thurston GD, Vavilala MS, Vos T, Wagner GR, Weinstock MA, Weisskopf MG, Wulf S, Murray (2013) The state of US health, 1990–2010: burden of diseases, injuries, and risk factors. JAMA 310:591–608
Case A, Deaton A (2015) Rising morbidity and mortality in midlife among white non-Hispanic Americans in the 21st century. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 112:15078–15083
Zorumski CF, Rubin EH (2011) Psychiatry and clinical neuroscience: a primer. Oxford University Press, New York, NY
Shorter E (1997) A history of psychiatry. Wiley, New York, NY
Gage N, Hickok G (2005) Multiregional cell assemblies, temporal binding and the representation of conceptual knowledge in cortex: a modern theory by a “classical” neurologist, Carl Wernicke. Cortex 41:823–832
Wernicke C (1900) Grundriss der Psychiatrie. Verlag von Georg Thieme, Leipzig
Kendler KS, Engstrom EJ (2017) Kahlbaum, Hecker, and Kraepelin and the transition from psychiatric symptom complexes to empirical disease forms. Am J Psychiatry 174:102–109
Berger JR, Dean D (2014) Neurosyphilis. Handb Clin Neurol 121:1461–1472
Decker HS (2013) The making of DSM-III: a diagnostic manual’s conquest of American psychiatry. Oxford University Press, New York, NY
Engstrom EJ, Kendler KS (2015) Emil Kraepelin: icon and reality. Am J Psychiatry 172:1190–1196
Kraepelin E (1899) Psychiatrie: Ein Lehrbuch für Studirende und Aerzte. JA Barth, Leipzig
Kendler KS, Engstrom EJ (2018) Criticisms of Kraepelin’s psychiatric nosology: 1896–1927. Am J Psychiatry 175:316–326
Ungvari GS (1993) The Wernicke-Kleist-Leonhard school of psychiatry. Biol Psychiatry 34:749–752
Freud S (1930) Civilization and its discontents. Hogarth, London
Robins E, Guze SB (1970) Establishment of diagnostic validity in psychiatric illness: its application to schizophrenia. Am J Psychiatry 126:983–987
Feighner JP, Robins E, Guze SB, Woodruff RA Jr, Winokur G, Munoz R (1972) Diagnostic criteria for use in psychiatric research. Arch Gen Psychiatry 26:57–63
Kendler KS, Parnas J (2008) Philosophical issues in psychiatry: explanation, phenomenology, and nosology. Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore, MD
Ng B, Camacho A, Lara DR, Brunstein MG, Pinto OC, Akiskal HS (2008) A case series on the hypothesized connection between dementia and bipolar spectrum disorders: bipolar type VI? J Affect Disord 107:307–315
Guze SB, Cloninger CR, Martin RL, Clayton PJ (1983) A follow-up and family study of schizophrenia. Arch Gen Psychiatry 40:1273–1276
Elahi FM, Miller BL (2017) A clinicopathological approach to the diagnosis of dementia. Nat Rev Neurol 13:457–476
Propping P (2005) The biography of psychiatric genetics: from early achievements to historical burden, from an anxious society to critical geneticists. Am J Med Genet B Neuropsychiatr Genet 136b:2–7
Reich T, Clayton PJ, Winokur G (1969) Family history studies: V. The genetics of mania. Am J Psychiatry 125:1358–1369
Suarez BK, Rice JP (2004) Theodore Reich, M.D.: October 14, 1938–December 25, 2003. Am J Med Genet B Neuropsychiatr Genet 127b:1–4
Reich T, James JW, Morris CA (1972) The use of multiple thresholds in determining the mode of transmission of semi-continuous traits. Ann Hum Genet 36:163–184
Cloninger CR, Reich T, Guze SB (1975) The multifactorial model of disease transmission: III. Familial relationship between sociopathy and hysteria (Briquet’s syndrome). Br J Psychiatry 127:23–32
Cloninger CR, Rice J, Reich T (1979) Multifactorial inheritance with cultural transmission and assortative mating. III. Family structure and the analysis of separation experiments. Am J Hum Genet 31:366–388
Cloninger CR, Rice J, Reich T (1979) Multifactorial inheritance with cultural transmission and assortative mating. II. A general model of combined polygenic and cultural inheritance. Am J Hum Genet 31:176–198
Rice J, Cloninger CR, Reich T (1978) Multifactorial inheritance with cultural transmission and assortative mating. I. Description and basic properties of the unitary models. Am J Hum Genet 30:618–643
Nurnberger JI Jr, Blehar MC, Kaufmann CA, York-Cooler C, Simpson SG, Harkavy-Friedman J, Severe JB, Malaspina D, Reich T (1994) Diagnostic interview for genetic studies. Rationale, unique features, and training. NIMH Genetics Initiative. Arch Gen Psychiatry 51:849–859; discussion 863–844
Reich T, Edenberg HJ, Goate A, Williams JT, Rice JP, Van Eerdewegh P, Foroud T, Hesselbrock V, Schuckit MA, Bucholz K, Porjesz B, Li TK, Conneally PM, Nurnberger JI Jr, Tischfield JA, Crowe RR, Cloninger CR, Wu W, Shears S, Carr K, Crose C, Willig C, Begleiter H (1998) Genome-wide search for genes affecting the risk for alcohol dependence. Am J Med Genet 81:207–215
Collins AL, Sullivan PF (2013) Genome-wide association studies in psychiatry: what have we learned? Br J Psychiatry 202:1–4
Jannot AS, Ehret G, Perneger T (2015) P < 5 x 10(−8) has emerged as a standard of statistical significance for genome-wide association studies. J Clin Epidemiol 68:460–465
O’Donovan MC (2015) What have we learned from the Psychiatric Genomics Consortium. World Psychiatry 14:291–293
Schizophrenia Psychiatric Genome-Wide Association Study (GWAS) Consortium (2011) Genome-wide association study identifies five new schizophrenia loci. Nat Genet 43:969–976
Schizophrenia Working Group of the Psychiatric Genomics Consortium (2014) Biological insights from 108 schizophrenia-associated genetic loci. Nature 511:421–427
Jaffe AE, Gao Y, Deep-Soboslay A, Tao R, Hyde TM, Weinberger DR, Kleinman JE (2016) Mapping DNA methylation across development, genotype and schizophrenia in the human frontal cortex. Nat Neurosci 19:40–47
Ursini G, Punzi G, Chen Q, Marenco S, Robinson JF, Porcelli A, Hamilton EG, Mitjans M, Maddalena G, Begemann M, Seidel J, Yanamori H, Jaffe AE, Berman KF, Egan MF, Straub RE, Colantuoni C, Blasi G, Hashimoto R, Rujescu D, Ehrenreich H, Bertolino A, Weinberger DR (2018) Convergence of placenta biology and genetic risk for schizophrenia. Nat Med 24:792–801
Arnedo J, Svrakic DM, Del Val C, Romero-Zaliz R, Hernandez-Cuervo H, Fanous AH, Pato MT, Pato CN, de Erausquin GA, Cloninger CR, Zwir I (2015) Uncovering the hidden risk architecture of the schizophrenias: confirmation in three independent genome-wide association studies. Am J Psychiatry 172:139–153
Millan MJ, Andrieux A, Bartzokis G, Cadenhead K, Dazzan P, Fusar-Poli P, Gallinat J, Giedd J, Grayson DR, Heinrichs M, Kahn R, Krebs MO, Leboyer M, Lewis D, Marin O, Marin P, Meyer-Lindenberg A, McGorry P, McGuire P, Owen MJ, Patterson P, Sawa A, Spedding M, Uhlhaas P, Vaccarino F, Wahlestedt C, Weinberger D (2016) Altering the course of schizophrenia: progress and perspectives. Nat Rev Drug Discov 15:485–515
Szymczak S, Biernacka JM, Cordell HJ, Gonzalez-Recio O, Konig IR, Zhang H, Sun YV (2009) Machine learning in genome-wide association studies. Genet Epidemiol 33(Suppl 1):S51–S57
Kaitaro T (2001) Biological and epistemological models of localization in the nineteenth century: from Gall to Charcot. J Hist Neurosci 10:262–276
Snyder AZ (2016) Intrinsic brain activity and resting state networks. In: Pfaff DW, Volkow ND (eds) Neuroscience in the 21st century: from basic to clinical. Springer, New York, NY, pp 1625–1676
Raichle ME, Mintun MA (2006) Brain work and brain imaging. Annu Rev Neurosci 29:449–476
Coltheart M (2006) What has functional neuroimaging told us about the mind (so far)? Cortex 42:323–331
David SP, Ware JJ, Chu IM, Loftus PD, Fusar-Poli P, Radua J, Munafo MR, Ioannidis JP (2013) Potential reporting bias in fMRI studies of the brain. PLoS One 8:e70104
Biswal B, Yetkin FZ, Haughton VM, Hyde JS (1995) Functional connectivity in the motor cortex of resting human brain using echo-planar MRI. Magn Reson Med 34:537–541
Raichle ME, MacLeod AM, Snyder AZ, Powers WJ, Gusnard DA, Shulman GL (2001) A default mode of brain function. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 98:676–682
Raichle ME (2015) The brain’s default mode network. Annu Rev Neurosci 38:433–447
Fox MD, Snyder AZ, Vincent JL, Corbetta M, Van Essen DC, Raichle ME (2005) The human brain is intrinsically organized into dynamic, anticorrelated functional networks. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 102:9673–9678
Fox MD, Corbetta M, Snyder AZ, Vincent JL, Raichle ME (2006) Spontaneous neuronal activity distinguishes human dorsal and ventral attention systems. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 103:10046–10051
Dosenbach NU, Fair DA, Miezin FM, Cohen AL, Wenger KK, Dosenbach RA, Fox MD, Snyder AZ, Vincent JL, Raichle ME, Schlaggar BL, Petersen SE (2007) Distinct brain networks for adaptive and stable task control in humans. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 104:11073–11078
Power JD, Cohen AL, Nelson SM, Wig GS, Barnes KA, Church JA, Vogel AC, Laumann TO, Miezin FM, Schlaggar BL, Petersen SE (2011) Functional network organization of the human brain. Neuron 72:665–678
Laumann TO, Gordon EM, Adeyemo B, Snyder AZ, Joo SJ, Chen MY, Gilmore AW, McDermott KB, Nelson SM, Dosenbach NU, Schlaggar BL, Mumford JA, Poldrack RA, Petersen SE (2015) Functional system and areal organization of a highly sampled individual human brain. Neuron 87:657–670
Gordon EM, Laumann TO, Gilmore AW, Newbold DJ, Greene DJ, Berg JJ, Ortega M, Hoyt-Drazen C, Gratton C, Sun H, Hampton JM, Coalson RS, Nguyen AL, McDermott KB, Shimony JS, Snyder AZ, Schlaggar BL, Petersen SE, Nelson SM, Dosenbach NUF (2017) Precision functional mapping of individual human brains. Neuron 95:791–807.e797
Calhoun VD, Miller R, Pearlson G, Adali T (2014) The chronnectome: time-varying connectivity networks as the next frontier in fMRI data discovery. Neuron 84:262–274
Laumann TO, Snyder AZ, Mitra A, Gordon EM, Gratton C, Adeyemo B, Gilmore AW, Nelson SM, Berg JJ, Greene DJ, McCarthy JE, Tagliazucchi E, Laufs H, Schlaggar BL, Dosenbach NUF, Petersen SE (2017) On the stability of BOLD fMRI correlations. Cereb Cortex 27:4719–4732
Gratton C, Laumann TO, Nielsen AN, Greene DJ, Gordon EM, Gilmore AW, Nelson SM, Coalson RS, Snyder AZ, Schlaggar BL, Dosenbach NUF, Petersen SE (2018) Functional brain networks are dominated by stable group and individual factors, not cognitive or daily variation. Neuron 98:439–452.e435
Fox MD, Buckner RL, Liu H, Chakravarty MM, Lozano AM, Pascual-Leone A (2014) Resting-state networks link invasive and noninvasive brain stimulation across diverse psychiatric and neurological diseases. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 111:E4367–E4375
Drysdale AT, Grosenick L, Downar J, Dunlop K, Mansouri F, Meng Y, Fetcho RN, Zebley B, Oathes DJ, Etkin A, Schatzberg AF, Sudheimer K, Keller J, Mayberg HS, Gunning FM, Alexopoulos GS, Fox MD, Pascual-Leone A, Voss HU, Casey BJ, Dubin MJ, Liston C (2017) Resting-state connectivity biomarkers define neurophysiological subtypes of depression. Nat Med 23:28–38
Carter CS, Bearden CE, Bullmore ET, Geschwind DH, Glahn DC, Gur RE, Meyer-Lindenberg A, Weinberger DR (2017) Enhancing the informativeness and replicability of imaging genomics studies. Biol Psychiatry 82:157–164
Ioannidis JP (2017) Meta-analyses can be credible and useful: a new standard. JAMA Psychiat 74:311–312
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2019 Springer Science+Business Media, LLC, part of Springer Nature
About this protocol
Cite this protocol
Srivastava, A.B., Kobeissy, F.H., Gold, M.S. (2019). Qualitative vs. Quantitative Methods in Psychiatric Research: Updated. In: Kobeissy, F. (eds) Psychiatric Disorders. Methods in Molecular Biology, vol 2011. Humana, New York, NY. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4939-9554-7_2
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4939-9554-7_2
Published:
Publisher Name: Humana, New York, NY
Print ISBN: 978-1-4939-9553-0
Online ISBN: 978-1-4939-9554-7
eBook Packages: Springer Protocols