Early Childhood Assessment: An Integrative Framework

Abstract

Early childhood assessment is a valuable prevention-based area of practice for school and clinical psychologists. The purpose of this chapter is to provide a thorough and practical foundation and framework for assessment of infants, toddlers, and young children for a variety of purposes. This framework integrates several key principles that guide best practices in early childhood assessment. Effective assessment of this population calls for a comprehensive approach involving the collection of information across multiple developmental domains and from parents, teachers, and other caregivers. Clinicians conducting early childhood assessments need to be comfortable and skilled in utilizing a variety of methods including interviews, observations, and standardized testing. They must also be competent in applying and integrating naturalistic approaches that involve collection of data in everyday contexts. In addition to expanding upon basic tenets that lead to sound assessment practices, this chapter discusses relevant legal standards as well as classification systems that might apply to children in the 0–6 population.

Appendix 1

Age 9–12 months in infancy—Expected milestones:

• Has favorite toys and people

• Understands “no”

• Makes a lot of different sounds, including consonant-vowel-consonant combinations

• Copies sounds and gestures of other people

• Plays peek-a-boo, patty-cake or similar games

• Points to objects in environment

• Repeats sounds or actions to elicit attention

• Attempts to imitate words; toward the end of this period, says single words or word approximations on her/his own

• Looks at pictures in book

• Puts objects in and takes objects out of containers

• Toward end of this period, explores objects and toys in different ways

• Starts to use objects for their intended purposes (e.g., drinking from cup)

• Looks correctly at a specific object or picture named by another person

• Responds to simple spoken requests or directions (e.g., “Get the ball”)

• Shows fear in new or unusual situations

• Toward end of this period, tests parent/caregiver responses to her or his behavior

• Prefers mom/dad/caregiver to other people

• Shows increasing shyness or nervousness with strangers

• Uses simple, purposeful gestures (e.g., waves bye-bye)

• Begins to finger-feed self

• Attempts to imitate scribbles

Age 18 months–2 years (toddlerhood)—Expected milestones:

• Able to use several single words independently and then begin to put 2 words together

• Toward end of this period, uses short sentences (2–4 words)

• Vocabulary expands between age 1 and 2 years

• Names items in a picture book

• Says “no” and shows refusal behavior when doesn’t want to do something

• Points or otherwise gestures to indicate desired objects or to elicit attention from others

• Understands the purpose of ordinary items (e.g., hairbrush)

• Points to a few body parts

• Engages in simple pretend play with doll or other toy (e.g., feeding, putting to sleep)

• Able to point to several items or pictures named by others

• Repeats words and/or phrases spoken by others

• Interested in and begins to play with other children at basic level

• Follows one-step directions without gestures and then progresses to following two-step directions

• Initiates social interaction and shows joint attention (e.g., points to objects to show them to others, brings toys/objects to people)

• Explores environment independently, but with parent/caregiver nearby

• Knows names of other people

• Begins to sort shapes and colors

• Plays simple make-believe games

• May show tantrum behavior when frustrated or upset

• Shows affection with familiar people; fear of strangers is not unusual

• Drinks from a cup; eats with a spoon

Age 3 years—Expected Milestones:

• Follows instructions involving two or three steps

• Able to listen to and understand conversations, short stories, songs and poems

• Copies behavior of adults and peers

• Separates without difficulty from parents/caregivers

• Shows concern for friends who are upset

• May get frustrated or distressed by changes in routine

• Demonstrates a range of emotions (e.g., happiness, frustration, anger, surprise)

• Understands a variety of basic concepts (e.g., “same” and “different”) and prepositions (e.g., “in,” “under,” “behind,” etc.)

• Uses pronouns such as “I,” “we,” and “you”

• Shows significant improvements in pronunciation of words

• Understands possessives such as “mine” and “yours”

• Begins to notice print in their environment and understand uses for writing

• Can carry on conversations using several sentences

• Shows clear interest in playing with other children

• Takes turns in games and other activities

• Can state name, age, and gender

• Can copy circle and square

• Successfully manipulates toys with levers, buttons, etc.

• Labels several basic colors

• Plays make-believe and engages in fantasy play

• Can complete puzzles with several pieces

• Builds towers with blocks and can manipulate large-size Lego/Duplo blocks

• Dresses and undresses self by pulling on/off clothing

• Able to count out loud up to five or ten

• Able to eat on own using kid utensils such as fork and spoon

• Fears imaginary creatures, objects, etc. (e.g., monsters)

• Starts to show decreases in separation anxiety (also depends upon other variables such as exposure to school)

• Gender identity emerging

Age 4 years—Expected Milestones:

• Talks about interests, experiences, likes and dislikes

• Speaks in sentences consisting of 5–6 words and uses compound sentences

• Understands some basic rules of grammar, such as use of past tense

• Shows increased ability to initiate and sustain conversations

• Can state first and last name

• Prefers to play with other children rather than by self

• Understands the concepts of “same” and “different”

• Play is more complex, imaginative, and can be carried out for longer periods of time

• Engages in more extensive fantasy play

• Cooperates with other children

• Recalls and may start to retell parts of a story

• Can carry out three-step instructions

• Understands the concept of counting and can count between one and five objects using one-to-one correspondence

• Shows basic ability to plan in carrying out tasks

• More independent in daily activities (e.g., dressing, undressing)

• Begins to discuss solutions to conflicts and shows sympathy toward others

• Thinks that many unfamiliar images may be “monsters”

• Considers self as a whole person with body, mind, and feelings

• Still has difficulty differentiating between fantasy and reality

• Starts to understand time

• Draws a person with several body parts

• Uses child scissors

• Plays basic board or card games

• Able to distinguish between two objects based on size and weight

• Can recognize and write several letters

• Able to recite songs, nursery rhymes, poems from memory

• Can recognize and describe some emotions in other people

Age 5 years—Expected Milestones:

• Speaks clearly and uses both compound and complex sentences

• Regularly uses sentences consisting of 5–6 words

• Uses and understand position words such as “under,” “behind,” etc.

• Can tell basic story using full sentences

• Can apply basic sequencing to a set of events, pictures, etc.

• Uses future tense when speaking

• Able to state full name and address

• Able to distinguish between real and make-believe for most situations

• Can draw basic geometric forms and shapes, such as straight lines, circle, and square, and can copy more complex ones

• Ties own shoelaces

• Shows improved skills with simple tools and utensils

• Accurately names a wide variety of colors

• Continues to engage in a lot of imaginative and fantasy play

• Dramatic play is more sustained and complex

• Becomes more analytical in solving problems, responding to challenges and asking questions

• Able to count out loud up to 20

• Recognizes numerals 0–10

• Counts objects of ten or more using one-to-one correspondence

• Begins identifying coins

• Visually recognizes many letters of alphabet

• Begins to read by sounding out words and/or recognizing “sight” words

• Able to understand and identify gender roles

• Responds to “why” questions

• Has multiple friends

• Shows desire to please friends and be like friends

• Shows decrease in earlier childhood fears

• Begins to accept validity of other points of view

• Able to manage social situations more independently; begins to use skills like negotiation and compromise

• Gender identity becomes more prominent