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Parenting in Childhood

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Gene-Environment Interplay in Interpersonal Relationships across the Lifespan

Part of the book series: Advances in Behavior Genetics ((AIBG,volume 3))

Abstract

Genetically sensitive studies of parenting now have a 30-year history, offering sufficient data to draw conclusions about how genes and the environment influence parenting. The majority of this chapter focuses on summarizing this literature. The key aim was to look at potential differences in genetic and environmental influences as a function of informant, study design, age of children, and parenting dimension. Across studies we demonstrate higher heritability for negative versus positive aspects of parenting, and contextualize these findings by outlining traditional socialization theories of parenting, enabling us to draw out the implications of the behavioral genetic findings for the field of parenting more generally. Future directions for research are also suggested.

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Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. School of Psychology, University of Sussex, Brighton, BN1 9RH, UK

    Alison Pike & Bonamy R. Oliver

Authors
  1. Alison Pike
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  2. Bonamy R. Oliver
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Corresponding author

Correspondence to Alison Pike .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. Dept. of Psychology, California State University, Fullerton, California, USA

    Briana N. Horwitz

  2. Department of Psychology, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania, USA

    Jenae M. Neiderhiser

Appendix

Appendix

Reference

Children’s age

N (pairs)

Design

Dataset

Informant

Construct

A

C

E

Boeldt et al. (2012)b

7–36 months (longitudinal)

374

Twin children

Twin infant project and longitudinal twin study

Coded m–c interaction, average over 5 time-points

Composite positivity (respect for child’s autonomy, quality of instruction, sensitivity to child cues, warmth)

0.20

0.30

0.48

Boivin et al. (2005)b

5 months

510

Twin children

Quebec newborn twin study (QNTS)

Mother

Parental self-efficacya

0.00

0.76

0.24

Mother

Perceived parental impacta

0.00

0.69

0.31

Mother

Parental hostile-reactive behaviour

0.31

0.53

0.16

Mother

Parental overprotection

0.00

0.86

0.14

Burt et al. (2003)b

10–12 years

808

Twin children

Minnesota twin family study

Average of child and mother

Parent-child conflict

0.38

0.35

0.27

Deater-Deckard et al. (1999)

10–12 years

191

Adoption

Colorado adoption project (CAP)

Parents

Negativity

0.38

0.59

0.03

Inconsistency

0.04

0.77

0.19

Warmth

0.26

0.67

0.06

Deater-Deckard (2000)b

3 years

120

Twin children

TRACKS

Mother

Negative affect

0.55

0.23

0.22

Positive affect

0.46

0.37

0.17

Coded interaction

Negative affect

0.06

0.16

0.78

Positive affect

0.00

0.51

0.49

Negative control

0.00

0.47

0.53

Positive control

0.00

0.49

0.51

Responsiveness

0.49

0.02

0.51

Interviewer

Harsh discipline

0.12

0.62

0.26

Deater-Deckard and O’Connor (2000)

3 years

120

Twin children

TRACKS

Coded interaction

Mother-child mutuality

0.59

0.00

0.41

3 years

102

Adoption

CAP

Coded interaction

Mother-child mutuality

0.50

0.00

0.50

DiLalla and Bishop (1996)

7 months

186

Twin children

Twin infant project

Coded interaction

Respect for child autonomya

0.00

0.22

0.78

Quality of instructiona

0.42

0.11

0.47

Sensitivity to cues from childa

0.56

0.01

0.44

Warmtha

0.04

0.47

0.49

9 months

    

Respect for child autonomya

0.06

0.27

0.67

Quality of instructiona

0.10

0.41

0.49

Sensitivity to cues from childa

0.00

0.34

0.66

Warmtha

0.00

0.50

0.50

Eley et al. (2010)b

8 years

265

Twin children

Emotions, cognitions, heredity and outcome (ECHO)

Coded interaction

Maternal control

0.63

0.00

0.37

Forget-Dubois et al. (2007)b

5 months

292

Twin children

QNTS

Parent

Parental hostile-reactive behaviours

0.31

0.50

0.19

18 months

     

0.00

0.71

0.29

30 months

     

0.26

0.56

0.18

Fujisawa et al. (2012)b

6.72 years (1.9 SD)

1677

Twin children

Tokyo twin cohort project and Tokyo twin cross sectional study

Parent

Negative parenting

0.39

0.46

0.15

Harlaar et al. (2008)

–

2334

Twin children (retrospective)

Finnish genetics of sex and aggression study

Twin retrospective reports

Maternal physical affection

0.30

0.24

0.46

Maternal responsiveness

0.25

0.28

0.47

Maternal control

0.25

0.22

0.53

Maternal abuse

0.27

0.29

0.44

Paternal physical affection

0.25

0.38

0.37

Paternal responsiveness

0.20

0.35

0.45

Paternal control

0.17

0.28

0.55

Paternal abuse

0.17

0.44

0.39

Jaffee et al. (2004)b

5 years

1116

Twin children

The environmental risk (E-risk) longitudinal twin study

Interviewer

Corporal punishment

0.25

0.66

0.10

Physical maltreatment

0.07

0.88

0.05

Kendler (1996)

–

1033

Twin children (retrospective)

Virginia twin registry

Twin retrospective reports

Paternal warmth

0.47

0.24

0.29

Maternal warmth

0.63

0.00

0.37

Paternal over-protectiveness

0.29

0.17

0.53

Maternal over-protectiveness

0.29

0.23

0.47

Paternal authoritarianism

0.24

0.19

0.57

Maternal authoritarianism

0.18

0.29

0.53

–

1033

Twin children (retrospective)

Virginia twin registry

Co-twin retrospective reports

Paternal warmth

0.20

0.45

0.35

Maternal warmth

0.33

0.32

0.35

Paternal over-protectiveness

0.17

0.23

0.61

Maternal over-protectiveness

0.29

0.16

0.55

Paternal authoritarianism

0.46

0.00

0.54

Maternal authoritarianism

0.25

0.19

0.56

–

1033

Twin children (retrospective)

Virginia twin registry

Parental retrospective reports

Paternal warmth

0.00

0.85

0.15

Maternal warmth

0.12

0.71

0.17

Paternal over-protectiveness

0.07

0.81

0.12

Maternal over-protectiveness

0.05

0.83

0.12

Paternal authoritarianism

0.06

0.79

0.15

Maternal authoritarianism

0.00

0.85

0.15

–

1033

Twin mothers

Virginia twin registry

Parent (twin) report (Twins as parents within same study as twins as children)

Maternal warmth

0.38

0.00

0.62

Maternal over-protectiveness

0.00

0.29

0.71

Maternal authoritarianism

0.00

0.20

0.80

Kim-Cohen et al. (2004)b

5 years

1116

Twin children

E-risk

Coded 5 min speech sample

Warmth

0.12

0.50

0.37

Knafo and Plomin (2006)b

3 years

9319

Twin children

TEDS

Parent

Positivity (discipline and feelings)

0.29

0.51

0.20

Negativity (discipline and feelings)

0.58

0.20

0.22

4 years

    

Positivity (discipline and feelings)

0.30

0.50

0.20

Negativity (discipline and feelings)

0.53

0.24

0.23

7 years—boys

    

Positivity (discipline and feelings)

0.30

0.40

0.30

Negativity (discipline and feelings)

0.55

0.18

0.27

7 years—girls

    

Positivity (discipline and feelings)

0.19

0.52

0.30

Negativity (discipline and feelings)

0.54

0.19

0.27

Larsson et al. (2008)b

4 years

6230

Twin children

TEDS

Parent report

Negativity—parental feelings questionnaire

0.48

0.30

0.22

7 years

6230

Twin children

TEDS

Parent report

Negativity—parental feelings questionnaire

0.42

0.27

0.32

Lichtenstein et al. (2003)b

45 years (±4.5)

326

Twin children (retrospective)

Twin moms study

Twin retrospective reports

Maternal warmth

0.33

0.35

0.45

Maternal protectiveness

0.19

0.36

0.45

Maternal authoritarianism

0.10

0.45

0.45

Paternal warmth

0.27

0.41

0.32

Paternal protectiveness

0.00

0.49

0.51

Paternal authoritarianism

0.00

0.43

0.57

Losoya et al. (1997)

Under 8 years

186

Twin/sib parents

 

Parent report

Positive support

0.60

0.00

0.40

Negative control

0.24

0.12

0.64

Perusse et al. (1994)

56.5 years (17.3 years)

1117

Twin children (retrospective reports

US sample

Twin retrospective reports

PBI: maternal Care

0.38

0.00

0.62

PBI: maternal overprotection

0.30

0.00

0.70

PBI: paternal care

0.23

0.00

0.77

PBI: paternal overprotection

0.18

0.00

0.82

Rende et al. (1992)

OS: 7 years

YS: 4.5 years

124

Adoption

CAP

Coded interaction (maternal behavior)

Control

0.31

0.67

0.00

Affection

0.00

0.88

0.12

Attention

0.61

0.38

0.01

Responsiveness

0.00

0.93

0.07

Roisman and Fraley (2006)

9 months

505

Twin children

Twin subsample from early childhood longitudinal study

Coded interaction

Overall observer rated infant-caregiver relationship quality

0.01

0.40

0.59

Roisman and Fraley (2012)

24 months and PreK

485

Twin children

Twin subsample from early childhood longitudinal study

Coded interaction

Aggregate supportive parenting across both time-points

0.00

0.72

0.28

Wade and Kendler (2000)

–

1033

Twin children (retrospective)

Virginia twin registry

Twin retrospective reports

Paternal physical discipline

0.33

0.28

0.39

Maternal physical discipline

0.40

0.21

0.39

Paternal limit-setting

0.28

0.23

0.49

Maternal limit-setting

0.17

0.30

0.53

1033

Twin children (retrospective)

Virginia twin registry

Parental retrospective reports

Paternal physical discipline

0.21

0.62

0.17

Maternal physical discipline

0.19

0.66

0.15

Paternal limit-setting

0.24

0.64

0.12

Maternal limit-setting

0.19

0.67

0.14

–

1033

Twin children (retrospective)

Virginia twin registry

Co-parent retrospective reports

Paternal physical discipline

0.09

0.72

0.19

Maternal physical discipline

0.10

0.64

0.26

Paternal limit-setting

0.19

0.69

0.12

Maternal limit-setting

0.00

0.80

0.20

–

1033

Twin mothers

Virginia twin registry

Parent (twin) report

Maternal physical discipline

0.21

0.00

0.79

Maternal limit-setting

0.27

0.00

0.73

  1. Note aEstimates calculated by authors from simple MZ DZ intraclass correlations in cases where model fitting results not provided
  2. bMultivariate results available

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Pike, A., Oliver, B.R. (2015). Parenting in Childhood. In: Horwitz, B., Neiderhiser, J. (eds) Gene-Environment Interplay in Interpersonal Relationships across the Lifespan. Advances in Behavior Genetics, vol 3. Springer, New York, NY. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4939-2923-8_3

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