Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Epidemiology of Henipaviruses

  • Chapter
Global Virology I - Identifying and Investigating Viral Diseases

Abstract

The natural reservoir of Hendra and Nipah virus are fruit bats of the genus Pteropus. In Queensland Australia several people were infected with Hendra virus after close contact with Hendra virus infected horses. In the large outbreak in Malaysia, where Nipah virus (NiV) was first identified, most human infections resulted from close contact with NiV infected pigs. Outbreak investigations in Bangladesh implicate drinking raw date palm sap as the most common pathway of NiV transmission from Pteropus bats to people, but person-to-person transmission of NiV has also been repeatedly identified in Bangladesh and India. While henipaviruses are not easily transmitted to people, since most people known to be infected with these viruses die, and some strains are already capable of limited person-to-person transmission, these RNA viruses warrant continued surveillance and scientific attention.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 169.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 219.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD 219.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

References

  1. Murray K, Selleck P, Hooper P, Hyatt A, Gould A, Gleeson L, et al. A morbillivirus that caused fatal disease in horses and humans. Science. 1995;268(5207):94–7.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  2. Chua KB, Goh KJ, Wong KT, Kamarulzaman A, Tan PS, Ksiazek TG, et al. Fatal encephalitis due to Nipah virus among pig-farmers in Malaysia. Lancet. 1999;354(9186):1257–9.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  3. Marsh GA, de Jong C, Barr JA, Tachedjian M, Smith C, Middleton D, et al. Cedar virus: a novel Henipavirus isolated from Australian bats. PLoS Pathog. 2012;8(8):e1002836.

    Article  CAS  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  4. Halpin K, Hyatt AD, Fogarty R, Middleton D, Bingham J, Epstein JH, et al. Pteropid bats are confirmed as the reservoir hosts of henipaviruses: a comprehensive experimental study of virus transmission. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 2011;85(5):946–51.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  5. Anthony SJ, Epstein JH, Murray KA, Navarrete-Macias I, Zambrana-Torrelio CM, Solovyov A, et al. A strategy to estimate unknown viral diversity in mammals. MBio. 2013;4(5):e00598–13.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  6. Drexler JF, Corman VM, Gloza-Rausch F, Seebens A, Annan A, Ipsen A, et al. Henipavirus RNA in African bats. PLoS One. 2009;4(7):e6367.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  7. Drexler JF, Corman VM, Muller MA, Maganga GD, Vallo P, Binger T, et al. Bats host major mammalian paramyxoviruses. Nat Commun. 2012;3:796.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  8. Middleton DJ, Morrissy CJ, van der Heide BM, Russell GM, Braun MA, Westbury HA, et al. Experimental Nipah virus infection in Pteropid bats (Pteropus poliocephalus). J Comp Pathol. 2007;136(4):266–72.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  9. Williamson MM, Hooper PT, Selleck PW, Gleeson LJ, Daniels PW, Westbury HA, et al. Transmission studies of Hendra virus (equine morbillivirus) in fruit bats, horses and cats. Aust Vet J. 1998;76(12):813–8.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  10. Bonaparte MI, Dimitrov AS, Bossart KN, Crameri G, Mungall BA, Bishop KA, et al. Ephrin-B2 ligand is a functional receptor for Hendra virus and Nipah virus. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2005;102(30):10652–7.

    Article  CAS  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  11. Bossart KN, Tachedjian M, McEachern JA, Crameri G, Zhu Z, Dimitrov DS, et al. Functional studies of host-specific ephrin-B ligands as Henipavirus receptors. Virology. 2008;372(2):357–71.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  12. Luby SP, Gurley ES. Epidemiology of henipavirus disease in humans. Curr Top Microbiol Immunol. 2012;359:25–40.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  13. Selvey L, Sheridan J. Outbreak of severe respiratory disease in humans and horses due to a previously unrecognized paramyxovirus. J Travel Med. 1995;2(4):275.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  14. Selvey LA, Wells RM, McCormack JG, Ansford AJ, Murray K, Rogers RJ, et al. Infection of humans and horses by a newly described morbillivirus. Med J Aust. 1995;162(12):642–5.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  15. Hess IM, Massey PD, Walker B, Middleton DJ, Wright TM. Hendra virus: what do we know? N S W Public Health Bull. 2011;22(5–6):118–22.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  16. O’Sullivan JD, Allworth AM, Paterson DL, Snow TM, Boots R, Gleeson LJ, et al. Fatal encephalitis due to novel paramyxovirus transmitted from horses. Lancet. 1997;349(9045):93–5.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  17. McCormack JG, Allworth AM, Selvey LA, Selleck PW. Transmissibility from horses to humans of a novel paramyxovirus, equine morbillivirus (EMV). J Infect. 1999;38(1):22–3.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  18. Hanna JN, McBride WJ, Brookes DL, Shield J, Taylor CT, Smith IL, et al. Hendra virus infection in a veterinarian. Med J Aust. 2006;185(10):562–4.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  19. Playford EG, McCall B, Smith G, Slinko V, Allen G, Smith I, et al. Human Hendra virus encephalitis associated with equine outbreak, Australia, 2008. Emerg Infect Dis. 2010;16(2):219–23.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  20. Field H, Schaaf K, Kung N, Simon C, Waltisbuhl D, Hobert H, et al. Hendra virus outbreak with novel clinical features, Australia. Emerg Infect Dis. 2010;16(2):338–40.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  21. Perkins N. Progress audit of Biosecurity Queensland response activities at Cawarral in August 2009. Toowoomba: Aus Vet Animal Health Services Pty Ltd; 2009.

    Google Scholar 

  22. Croser EL, Marsh GA. The changing face of the henipaviruses. Vet Microbiol. 2013;167(1–2):151–8.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  23. Lloyd-Smith JO, Schreiber SJ, Kopp PE, Getz WM. Superspreading and the effect of individual variation on disease emergence. Nature. 2005;438(7066):355–9.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  24. Selvey L, Taylor R, Arklay A, Gerrard J. Screening of bat carers for antibodies to equine morbillivirus. Commun Dis Intell. 1996;20:477.

    Google Scholar 

  25. Chua KB, Bellini WJ, Rota PA, Harcourt BH, Tamin A, Lam SK, et al. Nipah virus: a recently emergent deadly paramyxovirus. Science. 2000;288(5470):1432–5.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  26. Paton NI, Leo YS, Zaki SR, Auchus AP, Lee KE, Ling AE, et al. Outbreak of Nipah-virus infection among abattoir workers in Singapore. Lancet. 1999;354(9186):1253–6.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  27. Chua KB. Nipah virus outbreak in Malaysia. J Clin Virol. 2003;26(3):265–75.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  28. Goh KJ, Tan CT, Chew NK, Tan PS, Kamarulzaman A, Sarji SA, et al. Clinical features of Nipah virus encephalitis among pig farmers in Malaysia. N Engl J Med. 2000;342(17):1229–35.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  29. CDC. Update: outbreak of Nipah virus—Malaysia and Singapore, 1999. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 1999;48(16):335–7.

    Google Scholar 

  30. Parashar UD, Sunn LM, Ong F, Mounts AW, Arif MT, Ksiazek TG, et al. Case-control study of risk factors for human infection with a new zoonotic paramyxovirus, Nipah virus, during a 1998–1999 outbreak of severe encephalitis in Malaysia. J Infect Dis. 2000;181(5):1755–9.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  31. Mohd Nor MN, Gan CH, Ong BL. Nipah virus infection of pigs in peninsular Malaysia. Rev Sci Tech. 2000;19(1):160–5.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  32. Middleton DJ, Westbury HA, Morrissy CJ, van der Heide BM, Russell GM, Braun MA, et al. Experimental Nipah virus infection in pigs and cats. J Comp Pathol. 2002;126(2–3):124–36.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  33. Uppal PK. Emergence of Nipah virus in Malaysia. Ann N Y Acad Sci. 2000;916:354–7.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  34. Pulliam JR, Epstein JH, Dushoff J, Rahman SA, Bunning M, Jamaluddin AA, et al. Agricultural intensification, priming for persistence and the emergence of Nipah virus: a lethal bat-borne zoonosis. J R Soc Interface. 2012;9:89–101.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  35. AbuBakar S, Chang LY, Ali AR, Sharifah SH, Yusoff K, Zamrod Z. Isolation and molecular identification of Nipah virus from pigs. Emerg Infect Dis. 2004;10(12):2228–30.

    Article  CAS  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  36. Tan KS, Tan TC, Goh KJ. Epidemiological aspects of Nipah virus infection. Neurol J Southeast Asia. 1999;4:77–81.

    Google Scholar 

  37. Field H, Young P, Yob JM, Mills J, Hall L, Mackenzie J. The natural history of Hendra and Nipah viruses. Microbes Infect. 2001;3(4):307–14.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  38. Mills JN, Alim AN, Bunning ML, Lee OB, Wagoner KD, Amman BR, et al. Nipah virus infection in dogs, Malaysia, 1999. Emerg Infect Dis. 2009;15(6):950–2.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  39. Mounts AW, Kaur H, Parashar UD, Ksiazek TG, Cannon D, Arokiasamy JT, et al. A cohort study of health care workers to assess nosocomial transmissibility of Nipah virus, Malaysia, 1999. J Infect Dis. 2001;183(5):810–3.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  40. Tan KS, Ahmad Sarji S, Tan CT, Abdullah BJJ, Chong HT, Thayaparan T, et al. Patients with asymptomatic Nipah virus infection may have abnormal cerebral MR imaging. Neurol J Southeast Asia. 2000;5:69–73.

    Google Scholar 

  41. Abdullah S, Chang LY, Rahmat K, Goh KT, Tan CT. Late-onset Nipah virus encephalitis 11 years after the initial outbreak: a case report. Neurol Asia. 2012;17(1):71–4.

    Google Scholar 

  42. Luby SP, Rahman M, Hossain MJ, Blum LS, Husain MM, Gurley E, et al. Foodborne transmission of Nipah virus, Bangladesh. Emerg Infect Dis. 2006;12(12):1888–94.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  43. Rahman MA, Hossain MJ, Sultana S, Homaira N, Khan SU, Rahman M, et al. Date palm sap linked to Nipah virus outbreak in Bangladesh, 2008. Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis. 2012;12(1):65–72.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  44. Chakraborty A. Nipah outbreak in Lalmonirhat district, 2011. Health Sci Bull. 2011;9(2):13–9.

    Google Scholar 

  45. Sazzad HM, Hossain MJ, Gurley ES, Ameen KM, Parveen S, Islam MS, et al. Nipah virus infection outbreak with nosocomial and corpse-to-human transmission, Bangladesh. Emerg Infect Dis. 2013;19(2):210–7.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  46. Luby S, Hossain J, Gurley E, Ahmed B, Banu S, Khan M, et al. Recurrent zoonotic transmission of Nipah virus into humans, Bangladesh, 2001–2007. Emerg Infect Dis. 2009;15(8):1229–35.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  47. Nahar N, Sultana R, Gurley ES, Hossain MJ, Luby SP. Date palm sap collection: exploring opportunities to prevent Nipah transmission. Ecohealth. 2010;7(2):196–203.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  48. Halim MA, Chowdhury MSH, Muhamed N, Rahman M, Koike M. Sap production from khejur palm (Phoenix sylvestris roxb) husbandry: a substantial means of seasonal livelihood in rural Bangladesh. For Trees Livelihoods. 2008;18:305–18.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  49. Khan MS, Hossain J, Gurley ES, Nahar N, Sultana R, Luby SP. Use of infrared camera to understand bats’ access to date palm sap: implications for preventing Nipah virus transmission. Ecohealth. 2010;7(4):517–25.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  50. Wacharapluesadee S, Lumlertdacha B, Boongird K, Wanghongsa S, Chanhome L, Rollin P, et al. Bat Nipah virus, Thailand. Emerg Infect Dis. 2005;11(12):1949–51.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  51. Reynes JM, Counor D, Ong S, Faure C, Seng V, Molia S, et al. Nipah virus in Lyle’s flying foxes, Cambodia. Emerg Infect Dis. 2005;11(7):1042–7.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  52. Fogarty R, Halpin K, Hyatt AD, Daszak P, Mungall BA. Henipavirus susceptibility to environmental variables. Virus Res. 2008;132:140–4.

    Article  CAS  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  53. de Wit E, Prescott J, Falzarano D, Bushmaker T, Scott D, Feldmann H, et al. Foodborne transmission of Nipah virus in Syrian hamsters. PLoS Pathog. 2014;10(3):e1004001.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  54. Wacharapluesadee S, Boongird K, Wanghongsa S, Ratanasetyuth N, Supavonwong P, Saengsen D, et al. A longitudinal study of the prevalence of Nipah virus in Pteropus lylei bats in Thailand: evidence for seasonal preference in disease transmission. Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis. 2010;10(2):183–90.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  55. Arankalle VA, Bandyopadhyay BT, Ramdasi AY, Jadi R, Patil DR, Rahman M, et al. Genomic characterization of Nipah virus, West Bengal, India. Emerg Infect Dis. 2011;17(5):907–9.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  56. Islam MS. Nipah transmission from bats to humans associated with drinking traditional liquor (tari) in northern Bangladesh, 2011. Health Sci Bull. 2012;10(1):16–20.

    Google Scholar 

  57. Montgomery JM, Hossain MJ, Gurley ES, Carroll DS, Croisier A, Bertherat E, et al. Risk factors for Nipah virus encephalitis in Bangladesh. Emerg Infect Dis. 2008;10:1526–32.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  58. Hsu VP, Hossain MJ, Parashar UD, Ali MM, Ksiazek TG, Kuzmin I, et al. Nipah virus encephalitis reemergence, Bangladesh. Emerg Infect Dis. 2004;10(12):2082–7.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  59. ICDDRB. Outbreaks of encephalitis due to Nipah/Hendra-like viruses, western Bangladesh. Health Sci Bull. 2003;1(5):1–6.

    Google Scholar 

  60. Luby SP, Gurley ES, Hossain MJ. Transmission of human infection with Nipah virus. Clin Infect Dis. 2009;49(11):1743–8.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  61. Chadha MS, Comer JA, Lowe L, Rota PA, Rollin PE, Bellini WJ, et al. Nipah virus-associated encephalitis outbreak, Siliguri, India. Emerg Infect Dis. 2006;12(2):235–40.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  62. Gurley ES, Montgomery JM, Hossain MJ, Bell M, Azad AK, Islam MR, et al. Person-to-person transmission of Nipah virus in a Bangladeshi community. Emerg Infect Dis. 2007;13(7):1031–7.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  63. Homaira N, Rahman M, Hossain MJ, Epstein JH, Sultana R, Khan MS, et al. Nipah virus outbreak with person-to-person transmission in a district of Bangladesh, 2007. Epidemiol Infect. 2010;138(11):1630–6.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  64. Hossain MJ, Gurley ES, Montgomery JM, Bell M, Carroll DS, Hsu VP, et al. Clinical presentation of Nipah virus infection in Bangladesh. Clin Infect Dis. 2008;46(7):977–84.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  65. Chua KB, Lam SK, Goh KJ, Hooi PS, Ksiazek TG, Kamarulzaman A, et al. The presence of Nipah virus in respiratory secretions and urine of patients during an outbreak of Nipah virus encephalitis in Malaysia. J Infect. 2001;42(1):40–3.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  66. Harcourt BH, Lowe L, Tamin A, Liu X, Bankamp B, Bowden N, et al. Genetic characterization of Nipah virus, Bangladesh, 2004. Emerg Infect Dis. 2005;11(10):1594–7.

    Article  CAS  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  67. Hadley MB, Blum LS, Mujaddid S, Parveen S, Nuremowla S, Haque ME, et al. Why Bangladeshi nurses avoid ‘nursing’: social and structural factors on hospital wards in Bangladesh. Soc Sci Med. 2007;64(6):1166–77.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  68. Blum LS, Khan R, Nahar N, Breiman RF. In-depth assessment of an outbreak of Nipah encephalitis with person-to-person transmission in Bangladesh: implications for prevention and control strategies. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 2009;80(1):96–102.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  69. NIPORT. Bangladesh demographic and health survey 2007. Dhaka, Bangladesh: National Institute of Population Research and Training, Mitra and Associates; 2007.

    Google Scholar 

  70. Hegde ST, Sazzad HM, Hossain MJ, Kenah E, Daszak P, Rahman M, et al. Rick factor analysis for Nipah infection in Bangladesh 2004 to 2012. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 2013;9(5 Suppl 1):1.

    Google Scholar 

  71. Luby SP. The pandemic potential of Nipah virus. Antiviral Res. 2013;100(1):38–43.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  72. Lloyd-Smith JO, George D, Pepin KM, Pitzer VE, Pulliam JR, Dobson AP, et al. Epidemic dynamics at the human-animal interface. Science. 2009;326(5958):1362–7.

    Article  CAS  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  73. Antia R, Regoes RR, Koella JC, Bergstrom CT. The role of evolution in the emergence of infectious diseases. Nature. 2003;426(6967):658–61.

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  74. Furuse Y, Suzuki A, Oshitani H. Origin of measles virus: divergence from rinderpest virus between the 11th and 12th centuries. Virol J. 2010;7:52.

    Article  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  75. Cliff A, Haggett P, Smallman-Raynor M. Measles: an historical geography of a major human viral disease from global expansion to local retreat 1840–1990. Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell; 1994.

    Google Scholar 

  76. Blattner EB. The palms of British India and Ceylon. Delhi: Experts Book Agency; 1978.

    Google Scholar 

  77. Lo MK, Lowe L, Hummel KB, Sazzad HM, Gurley ES, Hossain MJ, et al. Characterization of Nipah virus from outbreaks in Bangladesh, 2008–2010. Emerg Infect Dis. 2012;18(2):248–55.

    Article  CAS  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  78. Geisbert TW, Feldmann H, Broder CC. Animal challenge models of henipavirus infection and pathogenesis. Curr Top Microbiol Immunol. 2012;359:153–77.

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  79. Rockx B, Brining D, Kramer J, Callison J, Ebihara H, Mansfield K, et al. Clinical outcome of henipavirus infection in hamsters is determined by the route and dose of infection. J Virol. 2011;85(15):7658–71.

    Article  CAS  PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgement

The authors are grateful for the collaboration from Professor Mahmudur Rahman and the Institute of Epidemiology Disease Control and Research of the Government of Bangladesh to support the surveillance and investigation of human Nipah virus investigation in Bangladesh, the National Institutes of Health (07-015-0712-52200), The National Science Foundation/National Institutes of Health Ecology and Evolution of Infectious Diseases grant number 2R01-TW005869 from the Fogarty International Center and the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (Cooperative Agreement 5U01CI000628) who have funded the Bangladesh investigations, and the many local collaborators who conducted the investigations. Sonia Hegde and Hossain Sazzad analyzed the data for Fig. 4.1. Md. Kamal Hossain constructed Fig. 4.2. The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Medicine, Stanford University School of Medicine, The Jerry Yang and Akiko Yamazaki Environment and Energy Building, 473 Via Ortega, MC 4020, Stanford, CA, 94305, USA

    Stephen Luby M.D.

  2. Centre for Communicable Diseases, ICDDR,B, GPO Box 128, Mohakhali, Dhaka, 1212, Bangladesh

    Emily Gurley Ph.D., M.P.H.

Authors
  1. Stephen Luby M.D.
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Emily Gurley Ph.D., M.P.H.
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Stephen Luby M.D. .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. Division of Infectious Diseases and International Medicine, USF Morsani College of Medicine, Tampa, Florida, USA

    Paul Shapshak

  2. Infectious Diseases and International He, USF Morsani College of Medicine, Tampa, Florida, USA

    John T. Sinnott

  3. Division of Infectious Diseases and Inte, USF Morsani College of Medicine, Tampa, Florida, USA

    Charurut Somboonwit

  4. C.W. Bill Young Center for Biodefense & Emerging Infectious Diseases, NIH-NIAID Div. Clinical Research, Frederick, Maryland, USA

    Jens H. Kuhn

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2015 Springer Science+Business Media New York

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Luby, S., Gurley, E. (2015). Epidemiology of Henipaviruses. In: Shapshak, P., Sinnott, J., Somboonwit, C., Kuhn, J. (eds) Global Virology I - Identifying and Investigating Viral Diseases. Springer, New York, NY. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4939-2410-3_4

Download citation

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation