Abstract
Ariel Dorfman’s play Death and the Maiden constitutes an example of theatre as a means of interrogating national transitional justice policy, on the one hand, and as a provocative form of transitional memorialization in action on the other. In a highly allegorical three-hander drama, Dorfman explores the motives and interests of victims, state actors and (alleged) human rights abusers, offering an array of individual narratives, versions and voices in contradistinction to the contemporaneous Chilean truth commission’s necessarily composite and generically representative report, leaving a freer moral choice to the viewer. It accurately captured some of the ongoing debates in Chile and transitional justice more generally at the time, and foreshadowed later debates. One can see in the determination of the victim character (Paulina) to secure a greater measure of justice and in the endurance of the playwright’s evident wish to revise the transitional settlement the roots of the later, stronger accountability process in Chile.
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Notes
- 1.
Ariel Dorfman, Death and the Maiden (London: Nick Hern Books, 1991).
- 2.
James Weaver and Jeanne Colleran. “Whose Memory? Whose Justice?: Personal and Political Trauma in Ariel Dorfman's Death and the Maiden,” Performance Research: A Journal of the Performing Arts 16 (2011):31, 33.
- 3.
Teitel claims that she coined the phrase “transitional justice” in this year (Ruti Teitel, “Editorial Note – Transitional Justice Globalized,” International Journal of Transitional Justice 2 (2008): 1, 1.
- 4.
Paige Arthur, “How ‘Transitions’ Reshaped Human Rights: A Conceptual History of Transitional Justice”, Human Rights Quarterly 31 (2009): 321, 329.
- 5.
Diane F. Orentlicher, “Settling Accounts: The Duty to Prosecute Human Rights Violations of a Prior Legal Regime” Yale Law Journal 100 (1991): 2537.
- 6.
For example Alexandra Barahona de Brito, “Truth, Justice, Memory and Democratization in the Southern Cone” in The Politics of Memory: Transitional Justice in Democratizing Societies, ed. Alexandra Barahona De Brito, Carmen González-Enríquez and Paloma Aguilar (New York: Oxford University Press, 2001), 119 at 156, Bronwyn Leebaw, “Human Rights Investigation and Dialogue,” Human Rights and Human Welfare 5 (2005): 71, 78, Vasuki Nesiah, “Resistance in the Age of Empire: Occupied Discourse Pending Investigation,” Third World Quarterly 27 (2006): 903, 905.
- 7.
Aryeh Neier, “What Should be Done About the Guilty?”, New York Review of Books, February 1, 2000, 34 at 34.
- 8.
Jon Elster, Closing the Books: Transitional Justice in Historical Perspective (Cambridge UK, New York: Cambridge University Press, 2004) at 93.
- 9.
Mary Helen Spooner, Soldiers in a Narrow Land: The Pinochet Regime in Chile (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1999).
- 10.
Mark Ensalaco, “Military Prerogatives and the Stalemate of Chilean Civil-Military Relations,” Armed Forces and Society 21 (1995): 255, Jorge Mera, “Chile: Truth and Justice Under Democratic Government” in Impunity and Human Rights in International Law and Practice, ed. Naomi Roht-Arriaza (New York: Oxford University Press, 1995), 171.
- 11.
De Brito, supra note 6, at 133.
- 12.
Jorge Correa Sutil, “‘No Victorious Army Has Ever Been Prosecuted….’: The Unsettled Story of Transitional Justice in Chile” in Transitional Justice and the Rule of Law in New Democracies, ed. A. James McAdams (Notre Dame, London: University of Notre Dame Press, 1997), 123 at 132.
- 13.
Alison Brysk, “Recovering From State Terror: The Morning After in Latin America,” Latin American Research Review 38 (2003): 238, 238.
- 14.
Dorfman, supra note 1, at 1 and 8.
- 15.
Id. at 24.
- 16.
Michael Ignatieff, “Articles of Faith,” Index on Censorship 25 (1996): 110, 114.
- 17.
Dorfman, supra note 1, at 6.
- 18.
Id. at 24.
- 19.
Sutil, supra note 12, at 131–133.
- 20.
Dorfman, supra note 1, at 26–27.
- 21.
Naomi Roht-Arriaza, “The New Landscape of Transitional Justice” in Transitional Justice in the Twenty-First Century: Beyond Truth Versus Justice, eds. Naomi Roht-Arriaza and Javier Marrizcuena (New York: Cambridge University Press, 2006), 1 at 3.
- 22.
David Gray, “An Excuse-Centered Approach to Transitional Justice,” Fordham Law Review 74 (2005-06): 2621, 2688.
- 23.
Ruti Teitel, “Human Rights in Transition: Transitional Justice Genealogy,” Harvard Human Rights Journal 16 (2003): 69, 81-82.
- 24.
Susan Dwyer, “Reconciliation for Realists,” 13 Ethics & International Affairs 13 (1999): 81, 89.
- 25.
Richard A Wilson, The Politics of Truth and Reconciliation in South Africa: Legitimizing the Post-Apartheid State (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001), 171.
- 26.
“During the period in question, the judicial branch did not respond vigorously enough to human rights violations….this posture taken by the judicial branch during military rule was largely, if unintentionally, responsible for aggravating the process of systematic human rights violations… As a result, the people of this nation still do not have confidence that the judicial branch as an institution is committed to defending their fundamental rights.” (Report of Chilean National Commission, 118–119).
- 27.
Sutil, supra note 12, at 126–7 and Lisa Hilbink, Judges Beyond Politics in Democracy and Dictatorship: Lessons from Chile (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007), 5.
- 28.
Cath Collins, Post-Transitional Justice: Human Rights Trials in Chile and El Salvador (Pennsylvania: Pennsylvania University Press, 2010), 102-103.
- 29.
Dorfman, supra note 1, at 11.
- 30.
Id. at 36.
- 31.
Id. at 26.
- 32.
David Luban, “On Dorfman’s Death and the Maiden,” Yale Journal of Law and the Humanities 10 (1998): 115, 118 and 120.
- 33.
John Butt, “Guilty Conscience?”, Times Literary Supplement, February 28, 1992, 22, cited in Cited in Robert A Morace, “The Life and Times of Death and the Maiden”, Texas Studies in Literature and Language 42 (2000): 135, 143.
- 34.
Pilar Zozaya Aritzia, “Alternative Political Discourses in Ariel Dorfman’s Death and the Maiden” Atlantis 18 (1996): 453, 454–455.
- 35.
Id. at 9.
- 36.
Id. at 34.
- 37.
Id. at 44.
- 38.
Id.
- 39.
Robert F Barsky, “Outsider Law in Literature: Construction and Representation in Death and the Maiden,” SubStance 26 (1997): 66, 86.
- 40.
David Schroeder, “Dorfman, Schubert, and Death and the Maiden,” Comparative Literature and Culture 9 (2007): 1, 7, Luban, supra note 32, at 123.
- 41.
Nthabiseng Motsemme, “The Mute Always Speak: On Women’s Silences at the Truth and Reconciliation Commission,” Current Sociology 52 (2004): 905, 909.
- 42.
Vasuki Nesiah, “Discussion Lines on Gender and Transitional Justice: An Introductory Essay Reflecting on the CTJ Bellagio Workshop on Gender and Transitional Justice,” Columbia Journal of Gender and Law 15 (2006): 799, Fionnuala Ni Aolain, “Political Violence and Gender During Times of Recognition,” Columbia Journal of Law and Gender 15 (2006): 829.
- 43.
Christine Bell, “Women Address the Problems of Peace Agreements” in Radhika Coomeraswamy and Dilruski Fonseka (eds) Women, Peace-Making and Constitutions (New Delhi: Women Unlimited, 2005), 96.
- 44.
Fionnuala Ni Aolain and Eilish Rooney, “Underenforcement and Intersectionality: Gendered Aspects of Transition for Women,” International Journal of Transitional Justice 1 (2007): 338, 342.
- 45.
Andrew Munro, “Recalling Voice: La Muerte y la Doncella,” Ciberletras Journal of Literary Criticism and Culture,” 6 (2002): 1, 3.
- 46.
Dorfman, supra note 1, at 9.
- 47.
Id. at 17, 22, 30.
- 48.
Id. at 5 and 23.
- 49.
Security Council Resolution 1325, UN Doc. S/RES/1325, 31 October 2000.
- 50.
Aritzia, supra note 34, at 453.
- 51.
Id. at 456.
- 52.
Dorfman, supra note 1, 22–23.
- 53.
Id. at 20.
- 54.
Barsky, supra note 39, at 78.
- 55.
Dorfman, supra note 1, at 29.
- 56.
Quoted in Lawrence Wechsler, A Miracle, A Universe: Settling Accounts with Torturers (New York: Pantheon, 1990), 4.
- 57.
David J. Scheffer, “The Tool Box, Past and Present, of Justice and Reconciliation for Atrocities,” 95 American Journal of International Law 95 (2001): 970, 970.
- 58.
Neil J Kritz, ‘Where We Are and How We Got Here: An Overview of Developments in the Search for Justice and Reconciliation’ in The Legacy of Abuse: Confronting the Past, Facing the Future, ed. Alice H. Henkin (Washington DC: Aspen Institute, 2002), 21 at 30.
- 59.
Judith N. Shklar, Legalism, Morals, and Political Trials (Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1964), 167.
- 60.
Larry Rohter, “Dorfman’s ‘Maiden’ Cries Out,” New York Times, March 8, 1992.
- 61.
Sophia A. McClennen, “Torture and Truth in Ariel Dorfman’s La muerte y la doncella,” Revista Hispanica Moderna 62 (2009): 179 at 182–183.
- 62.
Afterword in Ariel Dorfman, Death and the Maiden (Harmondsworth, Middlesex: Penguin Books, 1994), 74.
- 63.
De Brito, supra note 6, at 149.
- 64.
Carolyn Pinet, “Retrieving the Disappeared Text: Women, Chaos and Change in Argentina and Chile After the Dirty Wars,” Hispanic Journal 18 (1997): 89, 89.
- 65.
Sutil, supra note 12, at 123-4.
- 66.
Pinet, supra note 64, at 96.
- 67.
Id. at 95.
- 68.
McClennen, supra note 61, at 183.
- 69.
Morace, supra note 33, at 136.
- 70.
“I found the characters trying to figure out the sort of questions that so many Chileans were asking themselves privately, but that hardly anyone seemed interesting in posing in public” (Ariel Dorfman, The Resistance Trilogy (London: Nick Hern, 1998), 146).
- 71.
McClennen, supra note 61, at 182.
- 72.
Ksenija Bilbija et al (eds) The Art of Truth-Telling about Authoritarian Rule (Madison, Wis.: University of Wisconsin Press, 2005).
- 73.
Ruti Teitel, “Transitional Rule of Law” in Rethinking the Rule of Law after Communism, ed. Adam Czarnota et al (Budapest: Central European University Press, 2005), 279 at 288–292.
- 74.
Mark Sanders, Ambiguities of Witnessing: Law and Literature in the Time of a Truth Commission. (Palo Alto: Stanford University Press, 2007), 179.
- 75.
Siphiwe Ignatius Dube, “Transitional Justice Beyond the Normative: Towards a Literary Theory of Political Transitions,” International Journal of Transitional Justice 5 (2011):177, 195.
- 76.
Barsky, supra note 39.
- 77.
Pinet, supra note 64, at 90, 91 and 96.
- 78.
Schroeder, supra note 40, at 8.
- 79.
McClennen, supra note 61, at 185.
- 80.
Butt, as cited in Morace, supra note 33, at 143.
- 81.
Id. at 136.
- 82.
Brazilian literature critic Idelber Avelar, cited in McClennen, supra note 61, at 183.
- 83.
Henry James Morello, “Masking the Past: Trauma in Latin American and Peninsular Theatre” (Phd Diss. University of Illnois, 2006), cited in McClennen, supra note 61, at 184.
- 84.
Collins, supra note 28, at 131.
- 85.
Morace, supra note 33, at 139 and 148.
- 86.
Christine Bell, “Transitional Justice, Interdisciplinarity and the State of the ‘Field’ or ‘Non-Field,’” International Journal of Transitional Justice 3 (2009): 5, 6–7.
- 87.
Paloma Aguilar, “Transitional Justice in the Spanish, Argentinian and Chilean Case” (paper presented at Building a Future on Peace and Justice, Nuremberg, 3 June 2007), 32.
- 88.
Dorfman, supra note 1, at 4.
- 89.
De Brito, supra note 6, at 136.
- 90.
Collins, supra note 28, at 81–99 and 124–126.
- 91.
Alex Wilde, “Irruptions of Memory: Expressive Policies in Chile's Transition to Democracy,” Journal of Latin American Studies 31 (1999): 473.
- 92.
Kathryn Sikkink, The Justice Cascade: How Human Rights Prosecutions are Changing World Politics (New York: W.W. Norton & Co., 2011), David Sugarman, “Courts, Human Rights and Transitional Justice: Lessons from Chile,” Journal of Law and Society 36 (2009): 280.
- 93.
Morace, supra note 33, at 135.
- 94.
Collins, supra note 28, at 138.
- 95.
Morace, supra note 33, at 135.
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The author thanks Dr Jamie Rowen and Prof. Peter Rush for their useful comments.
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McAuliffe, P. (2014). Ariel Dorfman’s Death and the Maiden as a Mirror Reflecting the Dilemmas of Transitional Justice Policy. In: Rush, P., Simić, O. (eds) The Arts of Transitional Justice. Springer Series in Transitional Justice, vol 6. Springer, New York, NY. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4614-8385-4_5
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