Skip to main content

Alzheimer’s Disease Prevention and Treatment Based on Population-Based Approaches

  • Protocol
  • First Online:
Biomarkers for Alzheimer’s Disease Drug Development

Part of the book series: Methods in Molecular Biology ((MIMB,volume 2785))

Abstract

The development of effective prevention and treatment strategies for Alzheimer’s disease (AD) and dementia is hindered by limited knowledge of the underlying biological and environmental causes. While certain genetic factors have been associated with AD, and various lifestyle and environmental factors have been linked to dementia risk, the interactions between genes and the environment are not yet fully understood. To identify new avenues for dementia prevention, coordinated global efforts are needed to utilize existing cohorts and resources effectively and efficiently. This chapter provides an overview of current research on risk and protective factors for AD and dementia and discusses the opportunities and challenges associated with population-based approaches.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Protocol
USD 49.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 149.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Hardcover Book
USD 199.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

References

  1. Perneczky R, Jessen F, Grimmer T, Levin J, Floel A, Peters O, Froelich L (2023) Anti-amyloid antibody therapies in Alzheimer’s disease. Brain 146(3):842–849. https://doi.org/10.1093/brain/awad005

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  2. Hutter CM, Mechanic LE, Chatterjee N, Kraft P, Gillanders EM, Tank NCIG-ET (2013) Gene-environment interactions in cancer epidemiology: a National Cancer Institute Think Tank report. Genet Epidemiol 37(7):643–657. https://doi.org/10.1002/gepi.21756

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  3. The Lancet N (2014) G8 dementia summit: a chance for united action. Lancet Neurol 13(1):1. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1474-4422(13)70275-8

    Article  Google Scholar 

  4. Prince M, Wimo A, Guerchet M, Ali G, Wu Y-T, Prina M (2015) World Alzheimer Report 2015 – the global impact of Dementia: an analysis of prevalence, incidence, cost and trends

    Google Scholar 

  5. WHO (2017) Global action plan on the public health response to dementia 2017–2025

    Google Scholar 

  6. Scheltens P, Blennow K, Breteler MM, de Strooper B, Frisoni GB, Salloway S, Van der Flier WM (2016) Alzheimer’s disease. Lancet 388(10043):505–517. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(15)01124-1

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  7. Bellenguez C, Kucukali F, Jansen IE, Kleineidam L, Moreno-Grau S, Amin N, Naj AC, Campos-Martin R, Grenier-Boley B, Andrade V, Holmans PA, Boland A, Damotte V, van der Lee SJ, Costa MR, Kuulasmaa T, Yang Q, de Rojas I, Bis JC, Yaqub A, Prokic I, Chapuis J, Ahmad S, Giedraitis V, Aarsland D, Garcia-Gonzalez P, Abdelnour C, Alarcon-Martin E, Alcolea D, Alegret M, Alvarez I, Alvarez V, Armstrong NJ, Tsolaki A, Antunez C, Appollonio I, Arcaro M, Archetti S, Pastor AA, Arosio B, Athanasiu L, Bailly H, Banaj N, Baquero M, Barral S, Beiser A, Pastor AB, Below JE, Benchek P, Benussi L, Berr C, Besse C, Bessi V, Binetti G, Bizarro A, Blesa R, Boada M, Boerwinkle E, Borroni B, Boschi S, Bossu P, Brathen G, Bressler J, Bresner C, Brodaty H, Brookes KJ, Brusco LI, Buiza-Rueda D, Burger K, Burholt V, Bush WS, Calero M, Cantwell LB, Chene G, Chung J, Cuccaro ML, Carracedo A, Cecchetti R, Cervera-Carles L, Charbonnier C, Chen HH, Chillotti C, Ciccone S, Claassen J, Clark C, Conti E, Corma-Gomez A, Costantini E, Custodero C, Daian D, Dalmasso MC, Daniele A, Dardiotis E, Dartigues JF, de Deyn PP, de Paiva LK, de Witte LD, Debette S, Deckert J, Del Ser T, Denning N, DeStefano A, Dichgans M, Diehl-Schmid J, Diez-Fairen M, Rossi PD, Djurovic S, Duron E, Duzel E, Dufouil C, Eiriksdottir G, Engelborghs S, Escott-Price V, Espinosa A, Ewers M, Faber KM, Fabrizio T, Nielsen SF, Fardo DW, Farotti L, Fenoglio C, Fernandez-Fuertes M, Ferrari R, Ferreira CB, Ferri E, Fin B, Fischer P, Fladby T, Fliessbach K, Fongang B, Fornage M, Fortea J, Foroud TM, Fostinelli S, Fox NC, Franco-Macias E, Bullido MJ, Frank-Garcia A, Froelich L, Fulton-Howard B, Galimberti D, Garcia-Alberca JM, Garcia-Gonzalez P, Garcia-Madrona S, Garcia-Ribas G, Ghidoni R, Giegling I, Giorgio G, Goate AM, Goldhardt O, Gomez-Fonseca D, Gonzalez-Perez A, Graff C, Grande G, Green E, Grimmer T, Grunblatt E, Grunin M, Gudnason V, Guetta-Baranes T, Haapasalo A, Hadjigeorgiou G, Haines JL, Hamilton-Nelson KL, Hampel H, Hanon O, Hardy J, Hartmann AM, Hausner L, Harwood J, Heilmann-Heimbach S, Helisalmi S, Heneka MT, Hernandez I, Herrmann MJ, Hoffmann P, Holmes C, Holstege H, Vilas RH, Hulsman M, Humphrey J, Biessels GJ, Jian X, Johansson C, Jun GR, Kastumata Y, Kauwe J, Kehoe PG, Kilander L, Stahlbom AK, Kivipelto M, Koivisto A, Kornhuber J, Kosmidis MH, Kukull WA, Kuksa PP, Kunkle BW, Kuzma AB, Lage C, Laukka EJ, Launer L, Lauria A, Lee CY, Lehtisalo J, Lerch O, Lleo A, Longstreth W Jr, Lopez O, de Munain AL, Love S, Lowemark M, Luckcuck L, Lunetta KL, Ma Y, Macias J, MacLeod CA, Maier W, Mangialasche F, Spallazzi M, Marquie M, Marshall R, Martin ER, Montes AM, Rodriguez CM, Masullo C, Mayeux R, Mead S, Mecocci P, Medina M, Meggy A, Mehrabian S, Mendoza S, Menendez-Gonzalez M, Mir P, Moebus S, Mol M, Molina-Porcel L, Montrreal L, Morelli L, Moreno F, Morgan K, Mosley T, Nothen MM, Muchnik C, Mukherjee S, Nacmias B, Ngandu T, Nicolas G, Nordestgaard BG, Olaso R, Orellana A, Orsini M, Ortega G, Padovani A, Paolo C, Papenberg G, Parnetti L, Pasquier F, Pastor P, Peloso G, Perez-Cordon A, Perez-Tur J, Pericard P, Peters O, Pijnenburg YAL, Pineda JA, Pinol-Ripoll G, Pisanu C, Polak T, Popp J, Posthuma D, Priller J, Puerta R, Quenez O, Quintela I, Thomassen JQ, Rabano A, Rainero I, Rajabli F, Ramakers I, Real LM, Reinders MJT, Reitz C, Reyes-Dumeyer D, Ridge P, Riedel-Heller S, Riederer P, Roberto N, Rodriguez-Rodriguez E, Rongve A, Allende IR, Rosende-Roca M, Royo JL, Rubino E, Rujescu D, Saez ME, Sakka P, Saltvedt I, Sanabria A, Sanchez-Arjona MB, Sanchez-Garcia F, Juan PS, Sanchez-Valle R, Sando SB, Sarnowski C, Satizabal CL, Scamosci M, Scarmeas N, Scarpini E, Scheltens P, Scherbaum N, Scherer M, Schmid M, Schneider A, Schott JM, Selbaek G, Seripa D, Serrano M, Sha J, Shadrin AA, Skrobot O, Slifer S, Snijders GJL, Soininen H, Solfrizzi V, Solomon A, Song Y, Sorbi S, Sotolongo-Grau O, Spalletta G, Spottke A, Squassina A, Stordal E, Tartan JP, Tarraga L, Tesi N, Thalamuthu A, Thomas T, Tosto G, Traykov L, Tremolizzo L, Tybjaerg-Hansen A, Uitterlinden A, Ullgren A, Ulstein I, Valero S, Valladares O, Broeckhoven CV, Vance J, Vardarajan BN, van der Lugt A, Dongen JV, van Rooij J, van Swieten J, Vandenberghe R, Verhey F, Vidal JS, Vogelgsang J, Vyhnalek M, Wagner M, Wallon D, Wang LS, Wang R, Weinhold L, Wiltfang J, Windle G, Woods B, Yannakoulia M, Zare H, Zhao Y, Zhang X, Zhu C, Zulaica M, Eadb, Gr@Ace, Degesco, Eadi, Gerad, Demgene, FinnGen, Adgc, Charge, Farrer LA, Psaty BM, Ghanbari M, Raj T, Sachdev P, Mather K, Jessen F, Ikram MA, de Mendonca A, Hort J, Tsolaki M, Pericak-Vance MA, Amouyel P, Williams J, Frikke-Schmidt R, Clarimon J, Deleuze JF, Rossi G, Seshadri S, Andreassen OA, Ingelsson M, Hiltunen M, Sleegers K, Schellenberg GD, van Duijn CM, Sims R, van der Flier WM, Ruiz A, Ramirez A, Lambert JC (2022) New insights into the genetic etiology of Alzheimer’s disease and related dementias. Nat Genet 54(4):412–436. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41588-022-01024-z

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  8. Terracciano A, Sutin AR, An Y, O’Brien RJ, Ferrucci L, Zonderman AB, Resnick SM (2014) Personality and risk of Alzheimer’s disease: new data and meta-analysis. Alzheimers Dement 10(2):179–186. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jalz.2013.03.002

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  9. JDP News (2013) Longitudinal cohort studies in neurodegeneration research: report of the JPND action group

    Google Scholar 

  10. Elbaz A, Dufouil C, Alperovitch A (2007) Interaction between genes and environment in neurodegenerative diseases. C R Biol 330(4):318–328. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.crvi.2007.02.018

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  11. Barberger-Gateau P, Lambert JC, Feart C, Peres K, Ritchie K, Dartigues JF, Alperovitch A (2013) From genetics to dietetics: the contribution of epidemiology to understanding Alzheimer’s disease. J Alzheimers Dis 33(Suppl 1):S457–S463. https://doi.org/10.3233/JAD-2012-129019

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  12. Ferrari C, Xu WL, Wang HX, Winblad B, Sorbi S, Qiu C, Fratiglioni L (2013) How can elderly apolipoprotein E epsilon4 carriers remain free from dementia? Neurobiol Aging 34(1):13–21. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neurobiolaging.2012.03.003

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  13. Yang Z, Slavin MJ, Sachdev PS (2013) Dementia in the oldest old. Nat Rev Neurol 9(7):382–393. https://doi.org/10.1038/nrneurol.2013.105

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  14. Barberger-Gateau P, Samieri C, Feart C, Plourde M (2011) Dietary omega 3 polyunsaturated fatty acids and Alzheimer’s disease: interaction with apolipoprotein E genotype. Curr Alzheimer Res 8(5):479–491

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  15. Hofman A, Ott A, Breteler MM, Bots ML, Slooter AJ, van Harskamp F, van Duijn CN, Van Broeckhoven C, Grobbee DE (1997) Atherosclerosis, apolipoprotein E, and prevalence of dementia and Alzheimer’s disease in the Rotterdam Study. Lancet 349(9046):151–154. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(96)09328-2

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  16. Rovio S, Kareholt I, Helkala EL, Viitanen M, Winblad B, Tuomilehto J, Soininen H, Nissinen A, Kivipelto M (2005) Leisure-time physical activity at midlife and the risk of dementia and Alzheimer’s disease. Lancet Neurol 4(11):705–711. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1474-4422(05)70198-8

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  17. Clarke RJ, Bennett DA (2008) B vitamins for prevention of cognitive decline: insufficient evidence to justify treatment. JAMA 300(15):1819–1821. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.300.15.1819

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  18. Annweiler C, Montero-Odasso M, Llewellyn DJ, Richard-Devantoy S, Duque G, Beauchet O (2013) Meta-analysis of memory and executive dysfunctions in relation to vitamin D. J Alzheimers Dis 37(1):147–171. https://doi.org/10.3233/JAD-130452

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  19. Cunnane SC, Plourde M, Pifferi F, Begin M, Feart C, Barberger-Gateau P (2009) Fish, docosahexaenoic acid and Alzheimer’s disease. Prog Lipid Res 48(5):239–256. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.plipres.2009.04.001

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  20. Mapstone M, Cheema AK, Fiandaca MS, Zhong X, Mhyre TR, MacArthur LH, Hall WJ, Fisher SG, Peterson DR, Haley JM, Nazar MD, Rich SA, Berlau DJ, Peltz CB, Tan MT, Kawas CH, Federoff HJ (2014) Plasma phospholipids identify antecedent memory impairment in older adults. Nat Med 20(4):415–418. https://doi.org/10.1038/nm.3466

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  21. Feart C, Samieri C, Alles B, Barberger-Gateau P (2013) Potential benefits of adherence to the Mediterranean diet on cognitive health. Proc Nutr Soc 72(1):140–152. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0029665112002959

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  22. Martinez-Lapiscina EH, Clavero P, Toledo E, San Julian B, Sanchez-Tainta A, Corella D, Lamuela-Raventos RM, Martinez JA, Martinez-Gonzalez MA (2013) Virgin olive oil supplementation and long-term cognition: the PREDIMED-NAVARRA randomized, trial. J Nutr Health Aging 17(6):544–552. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12603-013-0027-6

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  23. Scheltens P, Twisk JW, Blesa R, Scarpini E, von Arnim CA, Bongers A, Harrison J, Swinkels SH, Stam CJ, de Waal H, Wurtman RJ, Wieggers RL, Vellas B, Kamphuis PJ (2012) Efficacy of Souvenaid in mild Alzheimer’s disease: results from a randomized, controlled trial. J Alzheimers Dis 31(1):225–236. https://doi.org/10.3233/JAD-2012-121189

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  24. Barberger-Gateau P, Feart C, Samieri C, Letenneur L (2013) Dietary patterns and dementia. In: Yaffe K (ed) Chronic medical disease and cognitive aging: toward a healthy body and brain. Oxford University Press, New York, pp 197–224

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  25. Quinn JF, Raman R, Thomas RG, Yurko-Mauro K, Nelson EB, Van Dyck C, Galvin JE, Emond J, Jack CR Jr, Weiner M, Shinto L, Aisen PS (2010) Docosahexaenoic acid supplementation and cognitive decline in Alzheimer disease: a randomized trial. JAMA 304(17):1903–1911. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.2010.1510

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  26. Morris MC, Evans DA, Bienias JL, Tangney CC, Bennett DA, Aggarwal N, Wilson RS, Scherr PA (2002) Dietary intake of antioxidant nutrients and the risk of incident Alzheimer disease in a biracial community study. JAMA 287(24):3230–3237

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  27. Luchsinger JA, Tang MX, Shea S, Mayeux R (2002) Caloric intake and the risk of Alzheimer disease. Arch Neurol 59(8):1258–1263

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  28. Kharrazi H, Vaisi-Raygani A, Rahimi Z, Tavilani H, Aminian M, Pourmotabbed T (2008) Association between enzymatic and non-enzymatic antioxidant defense mechanism with apolipoprotein E genotypes in Alzheimer disease. Clin Biochem 41(12):932–936. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.clinbiochem.2008.05.001

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  29. Lambert JC, Heath S, Even G, Campion D, Sleegers K, Hiltunen M, Combarros O, Zelenika D, Bullido MJ, Tavernier B, Letenneur L, Bettens K, Berr C, Pasquier F, Fievet N, Barberger-Gateau P, Engelborghs S, De Deyn P, Mateo I, Franck A, Helisalmi S, Porcellini E, Hanon O, European Alzheimer’s Disease Initiative I, de Pancorbo MM, Lendon C, Dufouil C, Jaillard C, Leveillard T, Alvarez V, Bosco P, Mancuso M, Panza F, Nacmias B, Bossu P, Piccardi P, Annoni G, Seripa D, Galimberti D, Hannequin D, Licastro F, Soininen H, Ritchie K, Blanche H, Dartigues JF, Tzourio C, Gut I, Van Broeckhoven C, Alperovitch A, Lathrop M, Amouyel P (2009) Genome-wide association study identifies variants at CLU and CR1 associated with Alzheimer’s disease. Nat Genet 41(10):1094–1099. https://doi.org/10.1038/ng.439

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  30. Sleegers K, Lambert JC, Bertram L, Cruts M, Amouyel P, Van Broeckhoven C (2010) The pursuit of susceptibility genes for Alzheimer’s disease: progress and prospects. Trends Genet 26(2):84–93. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tig.2009.12.004

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  31. Martinez-Lapiscina EH, Galbete C, Corella D, Toledo E, Buil-Cosiales P, Salas-Salvado J, Ros E, Martinez-Gonzalez MA (2014) Genotype patterns at CLU, CR1, PICALM and APOE, cognition and Mediterranean diet: the PREDIMED-NAVARRA trial. Genes Nutr 9(3):393. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12263-014-0393-7

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  32. Harslof LB, Larsen LH, Ritz C, Hellgren LI, Michaelsen KF, Vogel U, Lauritzen L (2013) FADS genotype and diet are important determinants of DHA status: a cross-sectional study in Danish infants. Am J Clin Nutr 97(6):1403–1410. https://doi.org/10.3945/ajcn.113.058685

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  33. Lemaitre RN, Tanaka T, Tang W, Manichaikul A, Foy M, Kabagambe EK, Nettleton JA, King IB, Weng LC, Bhattacharya S, Bandinelli S, Bis JC, Rich SS, Jacobs DR Jr, Cherubini A, McKnight B, Liang S, Gu X, Rice K, Laurie CC, Lumley T, Browning BL, Psaty BM, Chen YD, Friedlander Y, Djousse L, Wu JH, Siscovick DS, Uitterlinden AG, Arnett DK, Ferrucci L, Fornage M, Tsai MY, Mozaffarian D, Steffen LM (2011) Genetic loci associated with plasma phospholipid n-3 fatty acids: a meta-analysis of genome-wide association studies from the CHARGE Consortium. PLoS Genet 7(7):e1002193. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pgen.1002193

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  34. Ferrucci L, Perry JR, Matteini A, Perola M, Tanaka T, Silander K, Rice N, Melzer D, Murray A, Cluett C, Fried LP, Albanes D, Corsi AM, Cherubini A, Guralnik J, Bandinelli S, Singleton A, Virtamo J, Walston J, Semba RD, Frayling TM (2009) Common variation in the beta-carotene 15,15’-monooxygenase 1 gene affects circulating levels of carotenoids: a genome-wide association study. Am J Hum Genet 84(2):123–133. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ajhg.2008.12.019

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  35. Kathiresan S, Willer CJ, Peloso GM, Demissie S, Musunuru K, Schadt EE, Kaplan L, Bennett D, Li Y, Tanaka T, Voight BF, Bonnycastle LL, Jackson AU, Crawford G, Surti A, Guiducci C, Burtt NP, Parish S, Clarke R, Zelenika D, Kubalanza KA, Morken MA, Scott LJ, Stringham HM, Galan P, Swift AJ, Kuusisto J, Bergman RN, Sundvall J, Laakso M, Ferrucci L, Scheet P, Sanna S, Uda M, Yang Q, Lunetta KL, Dupuis J, de Bakker PI, O’Donnell CJ, Chambers JC, Kooner JS, Hercberg S, Meneton P, Lakatta EG, Scuteri A, Schlessinger D, Tuomilehto J, Collins FS, Groop L, Altshuler D, Collins R, Lathrop GM, Melander O, Salomaa V, Peltonen L, Orho-Melander M, Ordovas JM, Boehnke M, Abecasis GR, Mohlke KL, Cupples LA (2009) Common variants at 30 loci contribute to polygenic dyslipidemia. Nat Genet 41(1):56–65. https://doi.org/10.1038/ng.291

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  36. van Meurs JB, Pare G, Schwartz SM, Hazra A, Tanaka T, Vermeulen SH, Cotlarciuc I, Yuan X, Malarstig A, Bandinelli S, Bis JC, Blom H, Brown MJ, Chen C, Chen YD, Clarke RJ, Dehghan A, Erdmann J, Ferrucci L, Hamsten A, Hofman A, Hunter DJ, Goel A, Johnson AD, Kathiresan S, Kampman E, Kiel DP, Kiemeney LA, Chambers JC, Kraft P, Lindemans J, McKnight B, Nelson CP, O’Donnell CJ, Psaty BM, Ridker PM, Rivadeneira F, Rose LM, Seedorf U, Siscovick DS, Schunkert H, Selhub J, Ueland PM, Vollenweider P, Waeber G, Waterworth DM, Watkins H, Witteman JC, den Heijer M, Jacques P, Uitterlinden AG, Kooner JS, Rader DJ, Reilly MP, Mooser V, Chasman DI, Samani NJ, Ahmadi KR (2013) Common genetic loci influencing plasma homocysteine concentrations and their effect on risk of coronary artery disease. Am J Clin Nutr 98(3):668–676. https://doi.org/10.3945/ajcn.112.044545

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  37. Scarmeas N, Luchsinger JA, Schupf N, Brickman AM, Cosentino S, Tang MX, Stern Y (2009) Physical activity, diet, and risk of Alzheimer disease. JAMA 302(6):627–637. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.2009.1144

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  38. Tolppanen AM, Solomon A, Kulmala J, Kareholt I, Ngandu T, Rusanen M, Laatikainen T, Soininen H, Kivipelto M (2014) Leisure-time physical activity from mid- to late life, body mass index, and risk of dementia. Alzheimers Dement. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jalz.2014.01.008

  39. Wilson RS, Mendes De Leon CF, Barnes LL, Schneider JA, Bienias JL, Evans DA, Bennett DA (2002) Participation in cognitively stimulating activities and risk of incident Alzheimer disease. JAMA 287(6):742–748

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  40. Stern Y, Gurland B, Tatemichi TK, Tang MX, Wilder D, Mayeux R (1994) Influence of education and occupation on the incidence of Alzheimer’s disease. JAMA 271(13):1004–1010

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  41. Paillard-Borg S, Fratiglioni L, Xu W, Winblad B, Wang HX (2012) An active lifestyle postpones dementia onset by more than one year in very old adults. J Alzheimers Dis 31(4):835–842. https://doi.org/10.3233/JAD-2012-120724

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  42. Liu Y, Julkunen V, Paajanen T, Westman E, Wahlund LO, Aitken A, Sobow T, Mecocci P, Tsolaki M, Vellas B, Muehlboeck S, Spenger C, Lovestone S, Simmons A, Soininen H, AddNeuroMed C (2012) Education increases reserve against Alzheimer’s disease—evidence from structural MRI analysis. Neuroradiology 54(9):929–938. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00234-012-1005-0

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  43. Finkel D, Andel R, Gatz M, Pedersen NL (2009) The role of occupational complexity in trajectories of cognitive aging before and after retirement. Psychol Aging 24(3):563–573. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0015511

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  44. Karp A, Andel R, Parker MG, Wang HX, Winblad B, Fratiglioni L (2009) Mentally stimulating activities at work during midlife and dementia risk after age 75: follow-up study from the Kungsholmen Project. Am J Geriatr Psychiatry 17(3):227–236. https://doi.org/10.1097/JGP.0b013e318190b691

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  45. Stern Y (2012) Cognitive reserve in ageing and Alzheimer’s disease. Lancet Neurol 11(11):1006–1012. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1474-4422(12)70191-6

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  46. Cotman CW, Berchtold NC (2002) Exercise: a behavioral intervention to enhance brain health and plasticity. Trends Neurosci 25(6):295–301

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  47. Rovio S, Spulber G, Nieminen LJ, Niskanen E, Winblad B, Tuomilehto J, Nissinen A, Soininen H, Kivipelto M (2010) The effect of midlife physical activity on structural brain changes in the elderly. Neurobiol Aging 31(11):1927–1936. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neurobiolaging.2008.10.007

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  48. Komulainen P, Pedersen M, Hanninen T, Bruunsgaard H, Lakka TA, Kivipelto M, Hassinen M, Rauramaa TH, Pedersen BK, Rauramaa R (2008) BDNF is a novel marker of cognitive function in ageing women: the DR’s EXTRA Study. Neurobiol Learn Mem 90(4):596–603. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nlm.2008.07.014

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  49. Wang HX, Gustafson DR, Kivipelto M, Pedersen NL, Skoog I, Windblad B, Fratiglioni L (2012) Education halves the risk of dementia due to apolipoprotein epsilon4 allele: a collaborative study from the Swedish brain power initiative. Neurobiol Aging 33(5):1007 e1001–1007. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neurobiolaging.2011.10.003

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  50. Wirth M, Villeneuve S, La Joie R, Marks SM, Jagust WJ (2014) Gene-environment interactions: lifetime cognitive activity, APOE genotype, and beta-amyloid burden. J Neurosci 34(25):8612–8617. https://doi.org/10.1523/JNEUROSCI.4612-13.2014

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  51. Maioli S, Puerta E, Merino-Serrais P, Fusari L, Gil-Bea F, Rimondini R, Cedazo-Minguez A (2012) Combination of apolipoprotein E4 and high carbohydrate diet reduces hippocampal BDNF and arc levels and impairs memory in young mice. J Alzheimers Dis 32(2):341–355. https://doi.org/10.3233/JAD-2012-120697

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  52. Ferencz B, Laukka EJ, Welmer AK, Kalpouzos G, Angleman S, Keller L, Graff C, Lovden M, Backman L (2014) The benefits of staying active in old age: physical activity counteracts the negative influence of PICALM, BIN1, and CLU risk alleles on episodic memory functioning. Psychol Aging 29(2):440–449. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0035465

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  53. Cohen RA, Grieve S, Hoth KF, Paul RH, Sweet L, Tate D, Gunstad J, Stroud L, McCaffery J, Hitsman B, Niaura R, Clark CR, McFarlane A, Bryant R, Gordon E, Williams LM (2006) Early life stress and morphometry of the adult anterior cingulate cortex and caudate nuclei. Biol Psychiatry 59(10):975–982. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsych.2005.12.016

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  54. Wolkowitz OM, Epel ES, Reus VI, Mellon SH (2010) Depression gets old fast: do stress and depression accelerate cell aging? Depress Anxiety 27(4):327–338. https://doi.org/10.1002/da.20686

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  55. Savva GM, Wharton SB, Ince PG, Forster G, Matthews FE, Brayne C, Medical Research Council Cognitive F, Ageing S (2009) Age, neuropathology, and dementia. New Engl J Med 360(22):2302–2309. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa0806142

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  56. Seidler A, Nienhaus A, Bernhardt T, Kauppinen T, Elo AL, Frolich L (2004) Psychosocial work factors and dementia. Occup Environ Med 61(12):962–971. https://doi.org/10.1136/oem.2003.012153

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  57. Fratiglioni L, Qiu C (2011) Prevention of cognitive decline in ageing: dementia as the target, delayed onset as the goal. Lancet Neurol 10(9):778–779. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1474-4422(11)70145-4

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  58. McEwen BS, Morrison JH (2013) The brain on stress: vulnerability and plasticity of the prefrontal cortex over the life course. Neuron 79(1):16–29. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuron.2013.06.028

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  59. Wang HX, Karp A, Herlitz A, Crowe M, Kareholt I, Winblad B, Fratiglioni L (2009) Personality and lifestyle in relation to dementia incidence. Neurology 72(3):253–259. https://doi.org/10.1212/01.wnl.0000339485.39246.87

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  60. Hahn EA, Wang HX, Andel R, Fratiglioni L (2013) A change in sleep pattern may predict Alzheimer disease. Am J Geriatr Psychiatry. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jagp.2013.04.015

  61. Barnes DE, Yaffe K (2011) The projected effect of risk factor reduction on Alzheimer’s disease prevalence. Lancet Neurol 10(9):819–828. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1474-4422(11)70072-2

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  62. Skoog I, Lernfelt B, Landahl S, Palmertz B, Andreasson LA, Nilsson L, Persson G, Oden A, Svanborg A (1996) 15-year longitudinal study of blood pressure and dementia. Lancet 347(9009):1141–1145

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  63. Hanon O, Haulon S, Lenoir H, Seux ML, Rigaud AS, Safar M, Girerd X, Forette F (2005) Relationship between arterial stiffness and cognitive function in elderly subjects with complaints of memory loss. Stroke 36(10):2193–2197. https://doi.org/10.1161/01.STR.0000181771.82518.1c

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  64. Ott A, Stolk RP, van Harskamp F, Pols HA, Hofman A, Breteler MM (1999) Diabetes mellitus and the risk of dementia: the Rotterdam Study. Neurology 53(9):1937–1942

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  65. Anstey KJ, von Sanden C, Salim A, O’Kearney R (2007) Smoking as a risk factor for dementia and cognitive decline: a meta-analysis of prospective studies. Am J Epidemiol 166(4):367–378. https://doi.org/10.1093/aje/kwm116

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  66. Anstey KJ, Lipnicki DM, Low LF (2008) Cholesterol as a risk factor for dementia and cognitive decline: a systematic review of prospective studies with meta-analysis. Am J Geriatr Psychiatry 16(5):343–354. https://doi.org/10.1097/JGP.0b013e31816b72d4

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  67. de la Torre JC (2006) How do heart disease and stroke become risk factors for Alzheimer’s disease? Neurol Res 28(6):637–644. https://doi.org/10.1179/016164106X130362

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  68. Newman AB, Fitzpatrick AL, Lopez O, Jackson S, Lyketsos C, Jagust W, Ives D, Dekosky ST, Kuller LH (2005) Dementia and Alzheimer’s disease incidence in relationship to cardiovascular disease in the Cardiovascular Health Study cohort. J Am Geriatr Soc 53(7):1101–1107. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1532-5415.2005.53360.x

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  69. van Oijen M, de Jong FJ, Witteman JC, Hofman A, Koudstaal PJ, Breteler MM (2007) Atherosclerosis and risk for dementia. Ann Neurol 61(5):403–410. https://doi.org/10.1002/ana.21073

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  70. Wendell CR, Waldstein SR, Ferrucci L, O’Brien RJ, Strait JB, Zonderman AB (2012) Carotid atherosclerosis and prospective risk of dementia. Stroke 43(12):3319–3324. https://doi.org/10.1161/STROKEAHA.112.672527

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  71. Radanovic M, Pereira FR, Stella F, Aprahamian I, Ferreira LK, Forlenza OV, Busatto GF (2013) White matter abnormalities associated with Alzheimer’s disease and mild cognitive impairment: a critical review of MRI studies. Expert Rev Neurother 13(5):483–493. https://doi.org/10.1586/ern.13.45

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  72. de Bruijn RF, Akoudad S, Cremers LG, Hofman A, Niessen WJ, van der Lugt A, Koudstaal PJ, Vernooij MW, Ikram MA (2014) Determinants, MRI correlates, and prognosis of mild cognitive impairment: the Rotterdam Study. J Alzheimers Dis. https://doi.org/10.3233/JAD-132558

  73. Eckel RH, Grundy SM, Zimmet PZ (2005) The metabolic syndrome. Lancet 365(9468):1415–1428. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(05)66378-7

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  74. Skoog I, Kalaria RN, Breteler MM (1999) Vascular factors and Alzheimer disease. Alzheimer Dis Assoc Disord 13(Suppl 3):S106–S114

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  75. de Leeuw FE, Richard F, de Groot JC, van Duijn CM, Hofman A, Van Gijn J, Breteler MM (2004) Interaction between hypertension, apoE, and cerebral white matter lesions. Stroke 35(5):1057–1060. https://doi.org/10.1161/01.STR.0000125859.71051.83

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  76. Lambert JC, Ibrahim-Verbaas CA, Harold D, Naj AC, Sims R, Bellenguez C, DeStafano AL, Bis JC, Beecham GW, Grenier-Boley B, Russo G, Thorton-Wells TA, Jones N, Smith AV, Chouraki V, Thomas C, Ikram MA, Zelenika D, Vardarajan BN, Kamatani Y, Lin CF, Gerrish A, Schmidt H, Kunkle B, Dunstan ML, Ruiz A, Bihoreau MT, Choi SH, Reitz C, Pasquier F, Cruchaga C, Craig D, Amin N, Berr C, Lopez OL, De Jager PL, Deramecourt V, Johnston JA, Evans D, Lovestone S, Letenneur L, Moron FJ, Rubinsztein DC, Eiriksdottir G, Sleegers K, Goate AM, Fievet N, Huentelman MW, Gill M, Brown K, Kamboh MI, Keller L, Barberger-Gateau P, McGuiness B, Larson EB, Green R, Myers AJ, Dufouil C, Todd S, Wallon D, Love S, Rogaeva E, Gallacher J, St George-Hyslop P, Clarimon J, Lleo A, Bayer A, Tsuang DW, Yu L, Tsolaki M, Bossu P, Spalletta G, Proitsi P, Collinge J, Sorbi S, Sanchez-Garcia F, Fox NC, Hardy J, Deniz Naranjo MC, Bosco P, Clarke R, Brayne C, Galimberti D, Mancuso M, Matthews F, European Alzheimer’s Disease I, Genetic, Environmental Risk in Alzheimer’s D, Alzheimer’s Disease Genetic C, Cohorts for H, Aging Research in Genomic E, Moebus S, Mecocci P, Del Zompo M, Maier W, Hampel H, Pilotto A, Bullido M, Panza F, Caffarra P, Nacmias B, Gilbert JR, Mayhaus M, Lannefelt L, Hakonarson H, Pichler S, Carrasquillo MM, Ingelsson M, Beekly D, Alvarez V, Zou F, Valladares O, Younkin SG, Coto E, Hamilton-Nelson KL, Gu W, Razquin C, Pastor P, Mateo I, Owen MJ, Faber KM, Jonsson PV, Combarros O, O’Donovan MC, Cantwell LB, Soininen H, Blacker D, Mead S, Mosley TH Jr, Bennett DA, Harris TB, Fratiglioni L, Holmes C, de Bruijn RF, Passmore P, Montine TJ, Bettens K, Rotter JI, Brice A, Morgan K, Foroud TM, Kukull WA, Hannequin D, Powell JF, Nalls MA, Ritchie K, Lunetta KL, Kauwe JS, Boerwinkle E, Riemenschneider M, Boada M, Hiltuenen M, Martin ER, Schmidt R, Rujescu D, Wang LS, Dartigues JF, Mayeux R, Tzourio C, Hofman A, Nothen MM, Graff C, Psaty BM, Jones L, Haines JL, Holmans PA, Lathrop M, Pericak-Vance MA, Launer LJ, Farrer LA, van Duijn CM, Van Broeckhoven C, Moskvina V, Seshadri S, Williams J, Schellenberg GD, Amouyel P (2013) Meta-analysis of 74,046 individuals identifies 11 new susceptibility loci for Alzheimer’s disease. Nat Genet 45(12):1452–1458. https://doi.org/10.1038/ng.2802

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  77. Hollingworth P, Harold D, Sims R, Gerrish A, Lambert JC, Carrasquillo MM, Abraham R, Hamshere ML, Pahwa JS, Moskvina V, Dowzell K, Jones N, Stretton A, Thomas C, Richards A, Ivanov D, Widdowson C, Chapman J, Lovestone S, Powell J, Proitsi P, Lupton MK, Brayne C, Rubinsztein DC, Gill M, Lawlor B, Lynch A, Brown KS, Passmore PA, Craig D, McGuinness B, Todd S, Holmes C, Mann D, Smith AD, Beaumont H, Warden D, Wilcock G, Love S, Kehoe PG, Hooper NM, Vardy ER, Hardy J, Mead S, Fox NC, Rossor M, Collinge J, Maier W, Jessen F, Ruther E, Schurmann B, Heun R, Kolsch H, van den Bussche H, Heuser I, Kornhuber J, Wiltfang J, Dichgans M, Frolich L, Hampel H, Gallacher J, Hull M, Rujescu D, Giegling I, Goate AM, Kauwe JS, Cruchaga C, Nowotny P, Morris JC, Mayo K, Sleegers K, Bettens K, Engelborghs S, De Deyn PP, Van Broeckhoven C, Livingston G, Bass NJ, Gurling H, McQuillin A, Gwilliam R, Deloukas P, Al-Chalabi A, Shaw CE, Tsolaki M, Singleton AB, Guerreiro R, Muhleisen TW, Nothen MM, Moebus S, Jockel KH, Klopp N, Wichmann HE, Pankratz VS, Sando SB, Aasly JO, Barcikowska M, Wszolek ZK, Dickson DW, Graff-Radford NR, Petersen RC, Alzheimer’s Disease Neuroimaging I, van Duijn CM, Breteler MM, Ikram MA, DeStefano AL, Fitzpatrick AL, Lopez O, Launer LJ, Seshadri S, consortium C, Berr C, Campion D, Epelbaum J, Dartigues JF, Tzourio C, Alperovitch A, Lathrop M, consortium E, Feulner TM, Friedrich P, Riehle C, Krawczak M, Schreiber S, Mayhaus M, Nicolhaus S, Wagenpfeil S, Steinberg S, Stefansson H, Stefansson K, Snaedal J, Bjornsson S, Jonsson PV, Chouraki V, Genier-Boley B, Hiltunen M, Soininen H, Combarros O, Zelenika D, Delepine M, Bullido MJ, Pasquier F, Mateo I, Frank-Garcia A, Porcellini E, Hanon O, Coto E, Alvarez V, Bosco P, Siciliano G, Mancuso M, Panza F, Solfrizzi V, Nacmias B, Sorbi S, Bossu P, Piccardi P, Arosio B, Annoni G, Seripa D, Pilotto A, Scarpini E, Galimberti D, Brice A, Hannequin D, Licastro F, Jones L, Holmans PA, Jonsson T, Riemenschneider M, Morgan K, Younkin SG, Owen MJ, O’Donovan M, Amouyel P, Williams J (2011) Common variants at ABCA7, MS4A6A/MS4A4E, EPHA1, CD33 and CD2AP are associated with Alzheimer’s disease. Nat Genet 43(5):429–435. https://doi.org/10.1038/ng.803

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  78. Hovingh GK, Van Wijland MJ, Brownlie A, Bisoendial RJ, Hayden MR, Kastelein JJ, Groen AK (2003) The role of the ABCA1 transporter and cholesterol efflux in familial hypoalphalipoproteinemia. J Lipid Res 44(6):1251–1255. https://doi.org/10.1194/jlr.M300080-JLR200

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  79. Imhof A, Kovari E, von Gunten A, Gold G, Rivara CB, Herrmann FR, Hof PR, Bouras C, Giannakopoulos P (2007) Morphological substrates of cognitive decline in nonagenarians and centenarians: a new paradigm? J Neurol Sci 257(1-2):72–79. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jns.2007.01.025

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  80. Serrano-Pozo A, Frosch MP, Masliah E, Hyman BT (2011) Neuropathological alterations in Alzheimer disease. Cold Spring Harb Perspect Med 1(1):a006189. https://doi.org/10.1101/cshperspect.a006189

    Article  CAS  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  81. Qiu C, Kivipelto M, von Strauss E (2009) Epidemiology of Alzheimer’s disease: occurrence, determinants, and strategies toward intervention. Dialogues Clin Neurosci 11(2):111–128

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  82. Matthews FE, Arthur A, Barnes LE, Bond J, Jagger C, Robinson L, Brayne C, Medical Research Council Cognitive F, Ageing C (2013) A two-decade comparison of prevalence of dementia in individuals aged 65 years and older from three geographical areas of England: results of the Cognitive Function and Ageing Study I and II. Lancet 382(9902):1405–1412. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(13)61570-6

    Article  PubMed  PubMed Central  Google Scholar 

  83. Qiu C, von Strauss E, Backman L, Winblad B, Fratiglioni L (2013) Twenty-year changes in dementia occurrence suggest decreasing incidence in central Stockholm, Sweden. Neurology 80(20):1888–1894. https://doi.org/10.1212/WNL.0b013e318292a2f9

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgments

R.P. is supported by the German Center for Neurodegenerative Disorders (Deutsches Zentrum für Neurodegenerative Erkrankungen, DZNE), the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (DFG, 1007 German Research Foundation) under Germany’s Excellence Strategy within the framework of 1008 the Munich Cluster for Systems Neurology (EXC 2145 SyNergy – ID 390857198), the Davos Alzheimer’s Collaborative, the VERUM Foundation, the Robert-Vogel-Foundation, the German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases (DZNE), the National Institute for Health and Care Research (NIHR) Sheffield Biomedical Research Centre (NIHR203321), the University of Cambridge – Ludwig-Maximilians-University Munich Strategic Partnership within the framework of the German Excellence Initiative and Excellence Strategy, and the European Commission under the Innovative Health Initiative program (project 101132356).

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Robert Perneczky .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2024 The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Science+Business Media, LLC, part of Springer Nature

About this protocol

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this protocol

Perneczky, R. (2024). Alzheimer’s Disease Prevention and Treatment Based on Population-Based Approaches. In: Perneczky, R. (eds) Biomarkers for Alzheimer’s Disease Drug Development. Methods in Molecular Biology, vol 2785. Humana, New York, NY. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-0716-3774-6_2

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-0716-3774-6_2

  • Published:

  • Publisher Name: Humana, New York, NY

  • Print ISBN: 978-1-0716-3773-9

  • Online ISBN: 978-1-0716-3774-6

  • eBook Packages: Springer Protocols

Publish with us

Policies and ethics