Abstract
Plant root exudation has long been recognized as a vital communication system between plants and microbial communities populating the rhizosphere. Due to the high complexity of the collection process and analysis, a variety of techniques have been developed to mimic natural exudation conditions. In addition, significant progress improving existing techniques and developing new methodologies of root exudate collection and analysis have been made. However, optimal standard methods that compare closely with environmental soil conditions are not yet available. In this review, we provide an overview of all those topics and provide suggestions for improvement.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Koo BJ, Adriano DC, Bolan NS et al (2005) Root exudates and microorganisms. In: Hillel D (ed) Encyclopedia of soils in the environment. Elsevier, Oxford, pp 421–428
LA Inderjit W (2003) Root exudates: an overview. In: de Kroon H, Visser EJW (eds) Root ecology. Springer, Berlin, pp 235–255
Walker TS, Bais HP, Halligan KM et al (2003) Metabolic profiling of root exudates of Arabidopsis Thaliana. J Agric Food Chem 51(9):2548–2554. https://doi.org/10.1021/jf021166h
Chaparro JM, Badri DV, Bakker MG et al (2013) Root exudation of phytochemicals in Arabidopsis follows specific patterns that are developmentally programmed and correlate with soil microbial functions. PLoS One 8(2):e55731. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0055731
Canarini A, Kaiser C, Merchant A et al (2019) Root exudation of primary metabolites: mechanisms and their roles in plant responses to environmental stimuli. Front Plant Sci 10:157. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpls.2019.00157
Baetz U, Martinoia E (2014) Root exudates: the hidden part of plant defense. Trends Plant Sci 19(2):90–98. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tplants.2013.11.006
Gargallo-Garriga A, Preece C, Sardans J et al (2018) Root exudate metabolomes change under drought and show limited capacity for recovery. Sci Rep 8(1):12696. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-018-30150-0
Vranova V, Rejsek K, Skene KR et al (2013) Methods of collection of plant root exudates in relation to plant metabolism and purpose: a review. J Plant Nutr Soil Sci 176(2):175–199. https://doi.org/10.1002/jpln.201000360
Badri DV, Vivanco JM (2009) Regulation and function of root exudates. Plant Cell Environ 32(6):666–681. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-3040.2009.01926.x
Strehmel N, Mönchgesang S, Herklotz S et al (2016) Piriformospora indica stimulates root metabolism of Arabidopsis thaliana. Int J Mol Sci 17(7):1091. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms17071091
Contreras-Cornejo HA, Macías-Rodríguez L, Alfaro-Cuevas R et al (2014) Trichoderma spp. improve growth of Arabidopsis seedlings under salt stress through enhanced root development, osmolite production, and Na+ elimination through root exudates. Mol Plant Microbe Interact 27(6):503–514. https://doi.org/10.1094/mpmi-09-13-0265-r
Larsen PB, Degenhardt J, Tai C-Y et al (1998) Aluminum-resistant Arabidopsis mutants that exhibit altered patterns of aluminum accumulation and organic acid release from roots. Plant Physiol 117(1):9–17. https://doi.org/10.1104/pp.117.1.9
Zhang R, Vivanco JM, Shen Q (2017) The unseen rhizosphere root–soil–microbe interactions for crop production. Curr Opin Microbiol 37:8–14. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mib.2017.03.008
Silva-Filho MC, Vivanco JM (2017) Guest editorial: plants and their surrounding microorganisms: a dynamic world of interactions. Curr Opin Microbiol 37:v–vi. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mib.2017.09.016
Walker TS, Bais HP, Grotewold E et al (2003) Root exudation and rhizosphere biology. Plant Physiol 132(1):44–51. https://doi.org/10.1104/pp.102.019661
Grayston SJ, Vaughan D, Jones D (1997) Rhizosphere carbon flow in trees, in comparison with annual plants: the importance of root exudation and its impact on microbial activity and nutrient availability. Appl Soil Ecol 5(1):29–56. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0929-1393(96)00126-6
Marschener H (1998) Role of root growth, arbuscular mycorrhiza, and root exudates for the efficiency in nutrient acquisition. Field Crop Res 56(1–2):203–207. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0378-4290(97)00131-7
Hinsinger P (2001) Bioavailability of soil inorganic P in the rhizosphere as affected by root-induced chemical changes: a review. Plant Soil 237(2):173–195. https://doi.org/10.1023/a:1013351617532
Coskun D, Britto DT, Shi W et al (2017) How plant root exudates shape the nitrogen cycle. Trends Plant Sci 22(8):661–673. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tplants.2017.05.004
Chutia R, Abel S, Ziegler J (2019) Iron and phosphate deficiency regulators concertedly control coumarin profiles in Arabidopsis thaliana roots during iron, phosphate, and combined deficiencies. Front Plant Sci 10:113. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpls.2019.00113
Dakora FD, Phillips DA (2002) Root exudates as mediators of mineral acquisition in low-nutrient environments. In: Adu-Gyamfi JJ (ed) Food security in nutrient-stressed environments: exploiting plants’ genetic capabilities. Springer, Dordrecht, pp 201–213
Bais HP, Weir TL, Perry LG et al (2006) The role of root exudates in rhizosphere interactions with plants and other organisms. Annu Rev Plant Biol 57(1):233–266. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.arplant.57.032905.105159
Guyonnet J, Guillemet M, Dubost A et al (2018) Plant nutrient resource use strategies shape active rhizosphere microbiota through root exudation. Front Plant Sci 9:1662. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpls.2018.01662
Bates GH (1937) A device for the observation of root growth in the soil. Nature 139(3527):966–967. https://doi.org/10.1038/139966b0
Jacoby RP, Martyn A, Kopriva S (2018) Exometabolomic profiling of bacterial strains as cultivated using arabidopsis root extract as the sole carbon source. Mol Plant Microbe Interact 31(8):803–813. https://doi.org/10.1094/MPMI-10-17-0253-R
Meier IC, Finzi AC, Phillips RP (2017) Root exudates increase N availability by stimulating microbial turnover of fast-cycling N pools. Soil Biol Biochem 106:119–128. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.soilbio.2016.12.004
Yuan Y, Zhao W, Zhang Z et al (2018) Impacts of oxalic acid and glucose additions on N transformation in microcosms via artificial roots. Soil Biol Biochem 121:16–23. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.soilbio.2018.03.002
Pausch J, Kuzyakov Y (2018) Carbon input by roots into the soil: quantification of rhizodeposition from root to ecosystem scale. Glob Chang Biol 24(1):1–12. https://doi.org/10.1111/gcb.13850
Weng J, Wang Y, Li J et al (2013) Enhanced root colonization and biocontrol activity of Bacillus amyloliquefaciens SQR9 by abrB gene disruption. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 97(19):8823–8830. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00253-012-4572-4
Neal AL, Ahmad S, Gordon-Weeks R et al (2012) Benzoxazinoids in root exudates of maize attract Pseudomonas putida to the rhizosphere. PLoS One 7(4):e35498. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0035498
Yoneyama K, Xie X, Kim HI et al (2012) How do nitrogen and phosphorus deficiencies affect strigolactone production and exudation? Planta 235(6):1197–1207. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00425-011-1568-8
Broeckling CD, Broz AK, Bergelson J et al (2008) Root exudates regulate soil fungal community composition and diversity. Appl Environ Microbiol 74(3):738–744. https://doi.org/10.1128/aem.02188-07
Yuan J, Zhang N, Huang Q et al (2015) Organic acids from root exudates of banana help root colonization of PGPR strain Bacillus amyloliquefaciens NJN-6. Sci Rep 5:13438
Giles CD, Richardson AE, Cade-Menun BJ et al (2018) Phosphorus acquisition by citrate- and phytase-exuding Nicotiana tabacum plant mixtures depends on soil phosphorus availability and root intermingling. Physiol Plant 163(3):356–371. https://doi.org/10.1111/ppl.12718
Curl EA, Truelove B (1986) Root exudates. In: The rhizosphere. Springer, Berlin, pp 55–92
Harmsen G, Jager G (1962) Determination of the quantity of carbon and nitrogen in the rhizosphere of young plants. Soil organisms. In: Proceedings of the colloquium on soil fauna, soil microflora and their relationships, Osterbeek, The Netherlands, pp 245–251
Badri DV, Chaparro JM, Zhang R et al (2013) Application of natural blends of phytochemicals derived from the root exudates of Arabidopsis to the soil reveal that phenolic-related compounds predominantly modulate the soil microbiome. J Biol Chem 288(7):4502–4512. https://doi.org/10.1074/jbc.M112.433300
Wang JY, Haider I, Jamil M et al (2019) The apocarotenoid metabolite zaxinone regulates growth and strigolactone biosynthesis in rice. Nat Commun 10(1):810
Jin Y, Zhu H, Luo S et al (2019) Role of maize root exudates in promotion of colonization of Bacillus Velezensis strain s3-1 in rhizosphere soil and root tissue. Curr Microbiol 76(7):855–862
Ray S, Mishra S, Bisen K et al (2018) Modulation in phenolic root exudate profile of Abelmoschus esculentus expressing activation of defense pathway. Microbiol Res 207:100–107. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.micres.2017.11.011
Nguyen QT, Kozai T (2001) Growth of in vitro banana (Musa SPP.) shoots under photomixotrophic and photoautotrophic conditions. In Vitro Cell Dev Biol Plant 37(6):824. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11627-001-0137-4
Oburger E, Jones DL (2018) Sampling root exudates – Mission impossible? Rhizosphere 6:116–133. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rhisph.2018.06.004
Pinton R, Varanini Z, Nannipieri P (2007) The rhizosphere: biochemistry and organic substances at the soil-plant interface. CRC Press, Boca Raton
Miller SB, Heuberger AL, Broeckling CD et al (2019) Non-targeted metabolomics reveals sorghum rhizosphere-associated exudates are influenced by the belowground interaction of substrate and sorghum genotype. In J Mol Sci 20(2):431. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms20020431
Zhu S, Vivanco JM, Manter DK (2016) Nitrogen fertilizer rate affects root exudation, the rhizosphere microbiome and nitrogen-use-efficiency of maize. Appl Soil Ecol 107:324–333. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apsoil.2016.07.009
Haase S, Neumann G, Kania A et al (2007) Elevation of atmospheric CO2 and N-nutritional status modify nodulation, nodule-carbon supply, and root exudation of Phaseolus vulgaris L. Soil Biol Biochem 39(9):2208–2221. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.soilbio.2007.03.014
Neumann G (2006) Root exudates and organic composition of plant roots. In: Luster J, Finlay R (eds) Handbook of methods used in rhizosphere research. Swiss Federal Research Institute WSL, Birmensdorf
Sasse J, Martinoia E, Northen T (2018) Feed your friends: do plant exudates shape the root microbiome? Trends Plant Sci 23(1):25–41. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tplants.2017.09.003
Phillips RP, Erlitz Y, Bier R et al (2008) New approach for capturing soluble root exudates in forest soils. Funct Ecol 22(6):990–999. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2435.2008.01495.x
Gao J, Sasse J, Lewald KM et al (2018) Ecosystem fabrication (EcoFAB) protocols for the construction of laboratory ecosystems designed to study plant-microbe interactions. J Vis Exp 134:57170. https://doi.org/10.3791/57170
Simon L, Haichar FEZ (2019) Determination of root exudate concentration in the rhizosphere using 13C labeling. Bio Protoc 9(9):e3228. https://doi.org/10.21769/BioProtoc.3228
Schwab W (2003) Metabolome diversity: too few genes, too many metabolites? Phytochemistry 62(6):837–849. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0031-9422(02)00723-9
Zhang A, Sun H, Wang P et al (2012) Modern analytical techniques in metabolomics analysis. Analyst 137(2):293–300. https://doi.org/10.1039/C1AN15605E
Fuhrer T, Zamboni N (2015) High-throughput discovery metabolomics. Curr Opin Biotechnol 31:73–78. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.copbio.2014.08.006
Parkinson D (1955) Liberation of amino-acids by oat seedlings. Nature 176(4470):35–36. https://doi.org/10.1038/176035a0
Lowry OH, Rosebrough NJ, Farr AL et al (1951) Protein measurement with the Folin phenol reagent. J Biol Chem 193(1):265
Schlub RL (1978) Effects of soybean seed coat cracks on seed exudation and seedling quality in soil infested with pythium ultimum. Phytopathology 68(8):1186. https://doi.org/10.1094/Phyto-68-1186
Katznelson H, Rouatt JW, Payne TMB (1955) The liberation of amino acids and reducing compounds by plant roots. Plant Soil 7(1):35–48. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01343545
Rovira A (1956) Plant root excretions in relation to the rhizosphere effect. Plant Soil 7(2):178–194. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01343726
Rovira AD, Harris JR (1961) Plant root excretions in relation to the rhizosphere effect. Plant Soil 14(3):199–214. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01343852
Stotzky G, Goos RD, Timonin MI (1962) Microbial changes occurring in soil as a result of storage. Plant Soil 16(1):1–18. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01378154
Linderman R, Gilbert R (1975) Influence of volatiles of plant origin on soil-borne plant pathogens. In: Bruehl GW (ed) Biology and control of soil borne plant pathogens international symposium. The American Phytopathological Society, St. Paul, MN
Dundek P, Holík L, Rohlík T et al (2011) Methods of plant root exudates analysis: a review. Acta Univ Agric Silvic Mendel Brun 59(3):241–246. https://doi.org/10.11118/actaun201159030241
Van Dam NM, Bouwmeester HJ (2016) Metabolomics in the rhizosphere: tapping into belowground chemical communication. Trends Plant Sci 21(3):256–265. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tplants.2016.01.008
Dunn WB, Erban A, Weber RJM et al (2013) Mass appeal: metabolite identification in mass spectrometry-focused untargeted metabolomics. Metabolomics 9(1):44–66. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11306-012-0434-4
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2021 Springer Science+Business Media, LLC, part of Springer Nature
About this protocol
Cite this protocol
Pantigoso, H.A., He, Y., DiLegge, M.J., Vivanco, J.M. (2021). Methods for Root Exudate Collection and Analysis. In: Carvalhais, L.C., Dennis, P.G. (eds) The Plant Microbiome. Methods in Molecular Biology, vol 2232. Humana, New York, NY. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-0716-1040-4_22
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-0716-1040-4_22
Published:
Publisher Name: Humana, New York, NY
Print ISBN: 978-1-0716-1039-8
Online ISBN: 978-1-0716-1040-4
eBook Packages: Springer Protocols