Abstract
An alarming high proportion of youth experience at least one kind of stressor in childhood and/or adolescence. Exposure to early life stress is associated with increased risk for psychopathology, accelerated biological aging, and poor physical health; however, it is important to recognize that not all youth who experience such stress go on to develop difficulties. In fact, resilience, or positive adaptation in the face of adversity, is relatively common. Individual differences in vulnerability or resilience to the effects of early stress may be represented in the brain as specific patterns, profiles, or signatures of neural activation, structure, and connectivity (i.e., neurophenotypes). Whereas neurophenotypes of risk that reflect the deleterious effects of early stress on the developing brain are likely to exacerbate negative outcomes in youth, neurophenotypes of resilience may reduce the risk of experiencing these negative outcomes and instead promote positive functioning. In this chapter we describe our perspective concerning the neurobiological mechanisms and moderators of risk and resilience in adolescence following early life stress and integrate our own work into this framework. We present findings suggesting that exposure to stress in childhood and adolescence is associated with functional and structural alterations in neurobiological systems that are important for social-affective processing and for cognitive control. While some of these neurobiological alterations increase risk for psychopathology, they may also help to limit adolescents’ sensitivity to subsequent negative experiences. We also discuss person-centered strategies that we believe can advance our understanding of risk and resilience to early stress in adolescents. Finally, we describe ways in which the field can broaden its focus to include a consideration of other types of environmental factors, such as environmental pollutants, in affecting both risk and resilience to stress-related health difficulties in youth.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
References
Aghajani M, Veer IM, van Lang NDJ, Meens PHF, van den Bulk BG, Rombouts S, Vermeiren R, van der Wee NJA (2014) Altered white-matter architecture in treatment-naive adolescents with clinical depression. Psychol Med 44(11):2287–2298. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0033291713003000
Andersen SL, Teicher MH (2008) Stress, sensitive periods and maturational events in adolescent depression. Trends Neurosci 31(4):183–191. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2008.01.004
Ansell EB, Rando K, Tuit K, Guarnaccia J, Sinha R (2012) Cumulative adversity and smaller gray matter volume in medial prefrontal, anterior cingulate, and insula regions. Biol Psychiatry 72(1):57–64. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsych.2011.11.022
Banks SJ, Eddy KT, Angstadt M, Nathan PJ, Phan KL (2007) Amygdala-frontal connectivity during emotion regulation. Soc Cogn Affect Neurosci 2(4):303–312. https://doi.org/10.1093/scan/nsm029
Bartlett EA, Klein DN, Li K, DeLorenzo C, Kotov R, Perlman G (2019) Depression severity over 27 months in adolescent girls is predicted by stress-linked cortical morphology. Biol Psychiatry 86(10):769–778. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsych.2019.04.027
Beesdo K, Lau JYF, Guyer AE, McClure-Tone EB, Monk CS, Nelson EE, Fromm SJ, Goldwin MA, Wittchen H-U, Leibenluft E, Ernst M, Pine DS (2009) Common and distinct amygdala-function perturbations in depressed vs anxious adolescents. Arch Gen Psychiatry 66(3):275–285. https://doi.org/10.1001/archgenpsychiatry.2008.545
Berridge KC (2007) The debate over dopamine’s role in reward: the case for incentive salience. Psychopharmacology 191(3):391–431. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00213-006-0578-x
Blackford JU, Allen AH, Cowan RL, Avery SN (2013) Amygdala and hippocampus fail to habituate to faces in individuals with an inhibited temperament. Soc Cogn Affect Neurosci 8(2):143–150. https://doi.org/10.1093/scan/nsr078
Bonanno GA, Diminich ED (2013) Annual research review: positive adjustment to adversity--trajectories of minimal-impact resilience and emergent resilience. J Child Psychol Psychiatry 54(4):378–401. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcpp.12021
Boyce WT (2016) Differential susceptibility of the developing brain to contextual adversity and stress. Neuropsychopharmacology 41(1):142–162. https://doi.org/10.1038/npp.2015.294
Callaghan BL, Tottenham N (2016) The stress acceleration hypothesis: effects of early-life adversity on emotion circuits and behavior. Curr Opin Behav Sci 7:76–81. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cobeha.2015.11.018
Callaghan BL, Gee DG, Gabard-Durnam L, Telzer EH, Humphreys KL, Goff B, Shapiro M, Flannery J, Lumian DS, Fareri DS, Caldera C, Tottenham N (2019) Decreased amygdala reactivity to parent cues protects against anxiety following early adversity: an examination across 3 years. Biol Psychiatry Cogn Neurosci Neuroimaging 4(7):664–671. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bpsc.2019.02.001
Chahal R, Gotlib IH, Guyer AE (2020a) Brain network connectivity and the heterogeneity of depression in adolescence: a precision mental health perspective. J Child Psychol Psychiatry 61(12):1282–1298. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcpp.13250
Chahal R, Kirshenbaum JS, Ho TC, Mastrovito D, Gotlib IH (2020b) Greater age-related changes in white matter morphometry following early life stress: associations with internalizing problems in adolescence. Dev Cogn Neurosci 47:100899. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dcn.2020.100899
Chahal R, Kirshenbaum JS, Miller JG, Ho TC, Gotlib IH (2020c) Higher executive control network coherence buffers against puberty-related increases in internalizing symptoms during the COVID-19 pandemic. Biol Psychiatry Cogn Neurosci Neuroimaging. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bpsc.2020.08.010
Chahal R, Weissman DG, Hallquist MN, Robins RW, Hastings PD, Guyer AE (2020d) Neural connectivity biotypes: associations with internalizing problems throughout adolescence. Psychol Med 1–11. https://doi.org/10.1017/S003329172000149X
Chahal R, Kirshenbaum JS, Miller JG, Ho TC, Gotlib IH (2021) Higher executive control network coherence buffers against puberty-related increases in internalizing symptoms during the COVID-19 pandemic. Biol Psychiatry Cogn Neurosci Neuroimaging 6(1):79–88. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bpsc.2020.08.010
Chahal R, Ho TC, Kirshenbaum JS, Miller JG, Gotlib IH (revise and resubmit) Neural subgroups based on executive control and default mode networks predict longitudinal changes in internalizing and externalizing symptoms during puberty
Cohodes EM, Kitt ER, Baskin-Sommers A, Gee DG (2020) Influences of early-life stress on frontolimbic circuitry: harnessing a dimensional approach to elucidate the effects of heterogeneity in stress exposure. Dev Psychobiol. https://doi.org/10.1002/dev.21969
Cole MW, Schneider W (2007) The cognitive control network: integrated cortical regions with dissociable functions. NeuroImage 37(1):343–360. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2007.03.071
Colich NL, Williams ES, Ho TC, King LS, Humphreys KL, Price AN, Ordaz SJ, Gotlib IH (2017) The association between early life stress and prefrontal cortex activation during implicit emotion regulation is moderated by sex in early adolescence. Dev Psychopathol 29(5):1851–1864. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954579417001444
Colich NL, Rosen ML, Williams ES, McLaughlin KA (2020) Biological aging in childhood and adolescence following experiences of threat and deprivation: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Psychol Bull 146(9):721–764. https://doi.org/10.1037/bul0000270
De Brito SA, Viding E, Sebastian CL, Kelly PA, Mechelli A, Maris H, McCrory EJ (2013) Reduced orbitofrontal and temporal grey matter in a community sample of maltreated children. J Child Psychol Psychiatry 54(1):105–112. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7610.2012.02597.x
Deane C, Vijayakumar N, Allen NB, Schwartz O, Simmons JG, Bousman CA, Pantelis C, Whittle S (2020) Parenting × brain development interactions as predictors of adolescent depressive symptoms and well-being: differential susceptibility or diathesis-stress? Dev Psychopathol 32(1):139–150. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954579418001475
Del Giudice M, Ellis BJ, Shirtcliff EA (2011) The adaptive calibration model of stress responsivity. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 35(7):1562–1592. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2010.11.007
Demir-Lira ÖE, Voss JL, O’Neil JT, Briggs-Gowan MJ, Wakschlag LS, Booth JR (2016) Early-life stress exposure associated with altered prefrontal resting-state fMRI connectivity in young children. Dev Cogn Neurosci 19:107–114. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dcn.2016.02.003
Dismukes AR, Johnson MM, Vitacco MJ, Iturri F, Shirtcliff EA (2015) Coupling of the HPA and HPG axes in the context of early life adversity in incarcerated male adolescents. Dev Psychobiol 57(6):705–718. https://doi.org/10.1002/dev.21231
Dunn EC, Soare TW, Zhu Y, Simpkin AJ, Suderman MJ, Klengel T, Smith ADAC, Ressler KJ, Relton CL (2019) Sensitive periods for the effect of childhood adversity on DNA methylation: results from a prospective, longitudinal study. Biol Psychiatry 85(10):838–849. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsych.2018.12.023
Everaerd D, Klumpers F, Zwiers M, Guadalupe T, Franke B, van Oostrom I, Schene A, Fernández G, Tendolkar I (2016) Childhood abuse and deprivation are associated with distinct sex-dependent differences in brain morphology. Neuropsychopharmacology 41(7):1716–1723. https://doi.org/10.1038/npp.2015.344
Fang P, Zeng L-L, Shen H, Wang L, Li B, Liu L, Hu D (2012) Increased cortical-limbic anatomical network connectivity in major depression revealed by diffusion tensor imaging. PLoS One 7(9). https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0045972
Fareri DS, Gabard-Durnam L, Goff B, Flannery J, Gee DG, Lumian DS, Caldera C, Tottenham N (2017) Altered ventral striatal–medial prefrontal cortex resting-state connectivity mediates adolescent social problems after early institutional care. Dev Psychopathol 29(5):1865–1876. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954579417001456
Feldman R (2015) Sensitive periods in human social development: new insights from research on oxytocin, synchrony, and high-risk parenting. Dev Psychopathol 27(2):369–395. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954579415000048
Flaherty EG, Thompson R, Litrownik AJ, Theodore A, English DJ, Black MM, Wike T, Whimper L, Runyan DK, Dubowitz H (2006) Effect of early childhood adversity on child health. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med 160(12):1232–1238. https://doi.org/10.1001/archpedi.160.12.1232
Fox AS, Oler JA, Shackman AJ, Shelton SE, Raveendran M, McKay DR, Converse AK, Alexander A, Davidson RJ, Blangero J, Rogers J, Kalin NH (2015) Intergenerational neural mediators of early-life anxious temperament. Proc Natl Acad Sci 112(29):9118–9122. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1508593112
Frankenhuis WE, de Weerth C (2013) Does early-life exposure to stress shape or impair cognition? Curr Dir Psychol Sci 22(5):407–412. https://doi.org/10.1177/0963721413484324
Gard AM, Shaw DS, Forbes EE, Hyde LW (2018) Amygdala reactivity as a marker of differential susceptibility to socioeconomic resources during early adulthood. Dev Psychol 54(12):2341–2355. https://doi.org/10.1037/dev0000600
Gates KM, Lane ST, Varangis E, Giovanello K, Guiskewicz K (2017) Unsupervised classification during time-series model building. Multivar Behav Res 52(2):129–148. https://doi.org/10.1080/00273171.2016.1256187
Gee DG (2020) Caregiving influences on emotional learning and regulation: applying a sensitive period model. Curr Opin Behav Sci 36:177–184. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cobeha.2020.11.003
Gee DG, Gabard-Durnam LJ, Flannery J, Goff B, Humphreys KL, Telzer EH, Hare TA, Bookheimer SY, Tottenham N (2013) Early developmental emergence of human amygdala–prefrontal connectivity after maternal deprivation. Proc Natl Acad Sci 110(39):15638–15643. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1307893110
Goetschius LG, Hein TC, McLanahan SS, Brooks-Gunn J, McLoyd VC, Dotterer HL, Lopez-Duran N, Mitchell C, Hyde LW, Monk CS, Beltz AM (2020) Association of childhood violence exposure with adolescent neural network density. JAMA Netw Open 3(9). https://doi.org/10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2020.17850
Goff B, Gee DG, Telzer EH, Humphreys KL, Gabard-Durnam L, Flannery J, Tottenham N (2013) Reduced nucleus accumbens reactivity and adolescent depression following early-life stress. Neuroscience 249:129–138. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroscience.2012.12.010
Green JG, McLaughlin KA, Berglund PA, Gruber MJ, Sampson NA, Zaslavsky AM, Kessler RC (2010) Childhood adversities and adult psychiatric disorders in the National Comorbidity Survey Replication I: associations with first onset of DSM-IV disorders. Arch Gen Psychiatry 67(2):113–123. https://doi.org/10.1001/archgenpsychiatry.2009.186
Guyer AE (2020) Adolescent psychopathology: the role of brain-based diatheses, sensitivities, and susceptibilities. Child Dev Perspect 14(2):104–109. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdep.12365
Hagan MJ, Sulik MJ, Lieberman AF (2016) Traumatic life events and psychopathology in a high risk, ethnically diverse sample of young children: a person-Centered approach. J Abnorm Child Psychol 44(5):833–844. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-015-0078-8
Hanson JL, Chung MK, Avants BB, Shirtcliff EA, Gee JC, Davidson RJ, Pollak SD (2010) Early stress is associated with alterations in the orbitofrontal cortex: a tensor-based morphometry investigation of brain structure and Behavioral risk. J Neurosci 30(22):7466–7472. https://doi.org/10.1523/JNEUROSCI.0859-10.2010
Hanson JL, Hariri AR, Williamson DE (2015a) Blunted ventral striatum development in adolescence reflects emotional neglect and predicts depressive symptoms. Biol Psychiatry 78(9):598–605. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsych.2015.05.010
Hanson JL, Nacewicz BM, Sutterer MJ, Cayo AA, Schaefer SM, Rudolph KD, Shirtcliff EA, Pollak SD, Davidson RJ (2015b) Behavioral problems after early life stress: contributions of the hippocampus and amygdala. Biol Psychiatry 77(4):314–323. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsych.2014.04.020
Hart H, Lim L, Mehta MA, Chatzieffraimidou A, Curtis C, Xu X, Breen G, Simmons A, Mirza K, Rubia K (2017) Reduced functional connectivity of fronto-parietal sustained attention networks in severe childhood abuse. PLoS One 12(11):e0188744. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0188744
Hein TC, Monk CS (2017) Research review: neural response to threat in children, adolescents, and adults after child maltreatment - a quantitative meta-analysis. J Child Psychol Psychiatry 58(3):222–230. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcpp.12651
Herringa RJ, Birn RM, Ruttle PL, Burghy CA, Stodola DE, Davidson RJ, Essex MJ (2013) Childhood maltreatment is associated with altered fear circuitry and increased internalizing symptoms by late adolescence. Proc Natl Acad Sci 110(47):19119–19124. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1310766110
Herzberg MP, Gunnar MR (2020) Early life stress and brain function: activity and connectivity associated with processing emotion and reward. NeuroImage 209:116493. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2019.116493
Hodel AS, Hunt RH, Cowell RA, Van Den Heuvel SE, Gunnar MR, Thomas KM (2015) Duration of early adversity and structural brain development in post-institutionalized adolescents. NeuroImage 105:112–119. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2014.10.020
Holz NE, Tost H, Meyer-Lindenberg A (2020) Resilience and the brain: a key role for regulatory circuits linked to social stress and support. Mol Psychiatry 25(2):379–396. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41380-019-0551-9
Humphreys KL, King LS, Sacchet MD, Camacho MC, Colich NL, Ordaz SJ, Ho TC, Gotlib IH (2019a) Evidence for a sensitive period in the effects of early life stress on hippocampal volume. Dev Sci 22(3):e12775. https://doi.org/10.1111/desc.12775
Humphreys KL, Watts EL, Dennis EL, King LS, Thompson PM, Gotlib IH (2019b) Stressful life events, ADHD symptoms, and brain structure in early adolescence. J Abnorm Child Psychol 47(3):421–432. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-018-0443-5
Jacobson L, Sapolsky R (1991) The role of the hippocampus in feedback regulation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenocortical axis. Endocr Rev 12(2):118–134. https://doi.org/10.1210/edrv-12-2-118
Jedd K, Hunt RH, Cicchetti D, Hunt E, Cowell R, Rogosch F, Toth S, Thomas KM (2015) Long-term consequences of childhood maltreatment: altered amygdala functional connectivity. Dev Psychopathol 27(4 0 2):1577–1589. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954579415000954
Kerestes R, Davey CG, Stephanou K, Whittle S, Harrison BJ (2014) Functional brain imaging studies of youth depression: a systematic review. Neuroimage Clin 4:209–231. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nicl.2013.11.009
King LS, Colich NL, LeMoult J, Humphreys KL, Ordaz SJ, Price AN, Gotlib IH (2017) The impact of the severity of early life stress on diurnal cortisol: the role of puberty. Psychoneuroendocrinology 77:68–74. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psyneuen.2016.11.024
King LS, Humphreys KL, Camacho MC, Gotlib IH (2019) A person-centered approach to the assessment of early life stress: associations with the volume of stress-sensitive brain regions in early adolescence. Dev Psychopathol 31(2):643–655. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954579418000184
King LS, Graber MG, Colich NL, Gotlib IH (2020) Associations of waking cortisol with DHEA and testosterone across the pubertal transition: effects of threat-related early life stress. Psychoneuroendocrinology 115:104651. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psyneuen.2020.104651
Kircanski K, Sisk LM, Ho TC, Humphreys KL, King LS, Colich NL, Ordaz SJ, Gotlib IH (2019) Early life stress, cortisol, frontolimbic connectivity, and depressive symptoms during puberty. Dev Psychopathol 31(3):1011–1022. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954579419000555
LeDoux J (2007) The amygdala. Curr Biol 17(20):R868–R874. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2007.08.005
LeMoult J, Humphreys KL, Tracy A, Hoffmeister J-A, Ip E, Gotlib IH (2020) Meta-analysis: exposure to early life stress and risk for depression in childhood and adolescence. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 59(7):842–855. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaac.2019.10.011
Luby JL, Belden A, Harms MP, Tillman R, Barch DM (2016) Preschool is a sensitive period for the influence of maternal support on the trajectory of hippocampal development. Proc Natl Acad Sci 113(20):5742–5747. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1601443113
Luthar SS, Cicchetti D, Becker B (2000) The construct of resilience: a critical evaluation and guidelines for future work. Child Dev 71(3):543–562. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8624.00164
Malhi GS, Das P, Bell E, Mattingly G, Mannie Z (2019) Modelling resilience in adolescence and adversity: a novel framework to inform research and practice. Transl Psychiatry 9(1):1–16. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41398-019-0651-y
Manczak EM, Miller JG, Gotlib IH (2020) Water contaminant levels interact with parenting environment to predict development of depressive symptoms in adolescents. Dev Sci 23(1):e12838. https://doi.org/10.1111/desc.12838
Maren S, Phan KL, Liberzon I (2013) The contextual brain: implications for fear conditioning, extinction and psychopathology. Nat Rev Neurosci 14(6):417–428. https://doi.org/10.1038/nrn3492
Martini L, Melcangi RC (1991) Androgen metabolism in the brain. J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol 39(5B):819–828. https://doi.org/10.1016/0960-0760(91)90031-y
Marusak HA, Martin KR, Etkin A, Thomason ME (2015) Childhood trauma exposure disrupts the automatic regulation of emotional processing. Neuropsychopharmacology 40(5):1250–1258. https://doi.org/10.1038/npp.2014.311
Marusak HA, Hatfield JRB, Thomason ME, Rabinak CA (2017) Reduced ventral tegmental area–hippocampal connectivity in children and adolescents exposed to early threat. Biol Psychiatry Cogn Neurosci Neuroimaging 2(2):130–137. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bpsc.2016.11.002
Masten AS (2001) Ordinary magic. Resilience processes in development. Am Psychol 56(3):227–238. https://doi.org/10.1037//0003-066x.56.3.227
McCrory EJ, De Brito SA, Sebastian CL, Mechelli A, Bird G, Kelly PA, Viding E (2011) Heightened neural reactivity to threat in child victims of family violence. Curr Biol 21(23):R947–R948. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2011.10.015
McLaughlin KA, Greif Green J, Gruber MJ, Sampson NA, Zaslavsky AM, Kessler RC (2012) Childhood adversities and first onset of psychiatric disorders in a national sample of US adolescents. Arch Gen Psychiatry 69(11):1151–1160. https://doi.org/10.1001/archgenpsychiatry.2011.2277
McLaughlin KA, Colich NL, Rodman AM, Weissman DG (2020) Mechanisms linking childhood trauma exposure and psychopathology: a transdiagnostic model of risk and resilience. BMC Med 18(1):96. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12916-020-01561-6
McTeague LM, Goodkind MS, Etkin A (2016) Transdiagnostic impairment of cognitive control in mental illness. J Psychiatr Res 83:37–46. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpsychires.2016.08.001
Mehta MA, Golembo NI, Nosarti C, Colvert E, Mota A, Williams SCR, Rutter M, Sonuga-Barke EJS (2009) Amygdala, hippocampal and corpus callosum size following severe early institutional deprivation: the English and Romanian adoptees study pilot. J Child Psychol Psychiatry 50(8):943–951. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7610.2009.02084.x
Mendle J, Leve LD, Van Ryzin M, Natsuaki MN, Ge X (2011) Associations between early life stress, child maltreatment, and pubertal development among girls in foster care. J Res Adolesc 21(4):871–880. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1532-7795.2011.00746.x
Miller JG (2018) Physiological mechanisms of prosociality. Curr Opin Psychol 20:50–54. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.copsyc.2017.08.018
Miller JG, Chocol C, Nuselovici JN, Utendale WT, Simard M, Hastings PD (2013) Children’s dynamic RSA change during anger and its relations with parenting, temperament, and control of aggression. Biol Psychol 92(2):417–425. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsycho.2012.12.005
Miller GE, Chen E, Armstrong CC, Carroll AL, Ozturk S, Rydland KJ, Brody GH, Parrish TB, Nusslock R (2018) Functional connectivity in central executive network protects youth against cardiometabolic risks linked with neighborhood violence. Proc Natl Acad Sci 115(47):12063–12068. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1810067115
Miller JG, Gillette JS, Manczak EM, Kircanski K, Gotlib IH (2019) Fine particle air pollution and physiological reactivity to social stress in adolescence: the moderating role of anxiety and depression. Psychosom Med 81(7):641–648. https://doi.org/10.1097/PSY.0000000000000714
Miller JG, Gillette JS, Kircanski K, LeMoult J, Gotlib IH (2020a) Air pollution is associated with elevated HPA-Axis response to stress in anxious adolescent girls. Compr Psychoneuroendocrinol 4:100015. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cpnec.2020.100015
Miller JG, Ho TC, Humphreys KL, King LS, Foland-Ross LC, Colich NL, Ordaz SJ, Lin J, Gotlib IH (2020b) Early life stress, frontoamygdala connectivity, and biological aging in adolescence: a longitudinal investigation. Cereb Cortex 30(7):4269–4280. https://doi.org/10.1093/cercor/bhaa057
Neufang S, Specht K, Hausmann M, Güntürkün O, Herpertz-Dahlmann B, Fink GR, Konrad K (2009) Sex differences and the impact of steroid hormones on the developing human brain. Cereb Cortex 19(2):464–473. https://doi.org/10.1093/cercor/bhn100
Oh DL, Jerman P, Silvério Marques S, Koita K, Purewal Boparai SK, Burke Harris N, Bucci M (2018) Systematic review of pediatric health outcomes associated with childhood adversity. BMC Pediatr 18(1):83. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12887-018-1037-7
Olvera Alvarez HA, Kubzansky LD, Campen MJ, Slavich GM (2018) Early life stress, air pollution, inflammation, and disease: an integrative review and immunologic model of social-environmental adversity and lifespan health. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 92:226–242. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2018.06.002
Pagliaccio D, Luby JL, Bogdan R, Agrawal A, Gaffrey MS, Belden AC, Botteron KN, Harms MP, Barch DM (2015) Amygdala functional connectivity, HPA axis genetic variation, and life stress in children and relations to anxiety and emotion regulation. J Abnorm Psychol 124(4):817–833. https://doi.org/10.1037/abn0000094
Parker KJ, Buckmaster CL, Sundlass K, Schatzberg AF, Lyons DM (2006) Maternal mediation, stress inoculation, and the development of neuroendocrine stress resistance in primates. Proc Natl Acad Sci 103(8):3000–3005. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0506571103
Pechtel P, Pizzagalli DA (2011) Effects of early life stress on cognitive and affective function: an integrated review of human literature. Psychopharmacology 214(1):55–70. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00213-010-2009-2
Phelps EA, Delgado MR, Nearing KI, LeDoux JE (2004) Extinction learning in humans: role of the amygdala and vmPFC. Neuron 43(6):897–905. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuron.2004.08.042
Pons P, Latapy M (2006) Computing communities in large networks using random walks. J Graph Algorithms Applications, arXiv:physics/0512106
Price RB, Lane S, Gates K, Kraynak TE, Horner MS, Thase ME, Siegle GJ (2017) Parsing heterogeneity in the brain connectivity of depressed and healthy adults during positive mood. Biol Psychiatry 81(4):347–357. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsych.2016.06.023
Rodman AM, Jenness JL, Weissman DG, Pine DS, McLaughlin KA (2019) Neurobiological markers of resilience to depression following childhood maltreatment: the role of neural circuits supporting the cognitive control of emotion. Biol Psychiatry 86(6):464–473. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biopsych.2019.04.033
Rolls ET (2019) The orbitofrontal cortex and emotion in health and disease, including depression. Neuropsychologia 128:14–43. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2017.09.021
Roth MC, Humphreys KL, King LS, Gotlib IH (2018) Self-reported neglect, amygdala volume, and symptoms of anxiety in adolescent boys. Child Abuse Negl 80:80–89. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2018.03.016
Rutter M (2006) Implications of resilience concepts for scientific understanding. Ann N Y Acad Sci 1094:1–12. https://doi.org/10.1196/annals.1376.002
Ruttle PL, Shirtcliff EA, Armstrong JM, Klein MH, Essex MJ (2015) Neuroendocrine coupling across adolescence and the longitudinal influence of early life stress. Dev Psychobiol 57(6):688–704. https://doi.org/10.1002/dev.21138
Scherf KS, Smyth JM, Delgado MR (2013) The amygdala: an agent of change in adolescent neural networks. Horm Behav 64(2):298–313. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.yhbeh.2013.05.011
Schriber RA, Guyer AE (2016) Adolescent neurobiological susceptibility to social context. Dev Cogn Neurosci 19:1–18. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dcn.2015.12.009
Schriber RA, Anbari Z, Robins RW, Conger RD, Hastings PD, Guyer AE (2017) Hippocampal volume as an amplifier of the effect of social context on adolescent depression. Clin Psychol Sci 5(4):632–649. https://doi.org/10.1177/2167702617699277
Sherdell L, Waugh CE, Gotlib IH (2012) Anticipatory pleasure predicts motivation for reward in major depression. J Abnorm Psychol 121(1):51–60. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0024945
Sheridan MA, McLaughlin KA (2014) Dimensions of early experience and neural development: deprivation and threat. Trends Cogn Sci 18(11):580–585. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2014.09.001
Sheridan MA, Fox NA, Zeanah CH, McLaughlin KA, Nelson CA (2012) Variation in neural development as a result of exposure to institutionalization early in childhood. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 109(32):12927–12932. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1200041109
Silvers JA, Lumian DS, Gabard-Durnam L, Gee DG, Goff B, Fareri DS, Caldera C, Flannery J, Telzer EH, Humphreys KL, Tottenham N (2016) Previous institutionalization is followed by broader amygdala–hippocampal–PFC network connectivity during aversive learning in human development. J Neurosci 36(24):6420–6430. https://doi.org/10.1523/JNEUROSCI.0038-16.2016
Sinha R, Lacadie CM, Constable RT, Seo D (2016) Dynamic neural activity during stress signals resilient coping. Proc Natl Acad Sci. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1600965113
Sosnowski DW, Kliewer W, Valrie CR, Winter MA, Serpell Z, Amstadter AB (2020) The association between adverse childhood experiences and child telomere length: examining self-regulation as a Behavioral mediator. Child Dev 92(2). https://doi.org/10.1111/cdev.13441
Suzuki H, Luby JL, Botteron KN, Dietrich R, McAvoy MP, Barch DM (2014) Early life stress and trauma and enhanced limbic activation to emotionally valenced faces in depressed and healthy children. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 53(7):800–813.e10. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaac.2014.04.013
Teeuw J, Brouwer RM, GuimarĂŁes JPOFT, Brandner P, Koenis MMG, Swagerman SC, Verwoert M, Boomsma DI, Hulshoff Pol HE (2019) Genetic and environmental influences on functional connectivity within and between canonical cortical resting-state networks throughout adolescent development in boys and girls. NeuroImage 202:116073. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2019.116073
Teicher MH, Samson JA, Anderson CM, Ohashi K (2016) The effects of childhood maltreatment on brain structure, function and connectivity. Nat Rev Neurosci 17(10):652–666. https://doi.org/10.1038/nrn.2016.111
Teicher MH, Anderson CM, Ohashi K, Khan A, McGreenery CE, Bolger EA, Rohan ML, Vitaliano GD (2018) Differential effects of childhood neglect and abuse during sensitive exposure periods on male and female hippocampus. NeuroImage 169:443–452. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2017.12.055
Thayer JF, Ahs F, Fredrikson M, Sollers JJ, Wager TD (2012) A meta-analysis of heart rate variability and neuroimaging studies: implications for heart rate variability as a marker of stress and health. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 36(2):747–756. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2011.11.009
Thomson EM (2019) Air pollution, stress, and allostatic load: linking systemic and central nervous system impacts. J Alzheimers Dis 69(3):597–614. https://doi.org/10.3233/JAD-190015
Toga AW, Thompson PM, Sowell ER (2006) Mapping brain maturation. Trends Neurosci 29(3):148–159. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tins.2006.01.007
Tottenham N, Hare TA, Quinn BT, McCarry TW, Nurse M, Gilhooly T, Milner A, Galvan A, Davidson MC, Eigsti I-M, Thomas KM, Freed P, Booma ES, Gunnar M, Altemus M, Aronson J, Casey B (2010) Prolonged institutional rearing is associated with atypically larger amygdala volume and difficulties in emotion regulation. Dev Sci 13(1):46. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-7687.2009.00852.x
Tottenham N, Hare TA, Millner A, Gilhooly T, Zevin J, Casey BJ (2011) Elevated amygdala response to faces following early deprivation. Dev Sci 14(2):190–204. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-7687.2010.00971.x
Trentacosta CJ, Davis-Kean P, Mitchell C, Hyde L, Dolinoy D (2016) Environmental contaminants and child development. Child Dev Perspect 10(4):228–233. https://doi.org/10.1111/cdep.12191
Ulrich-Lai YM, Herman JP (2009) Neural regulation of endocrine and autonomic stress responses. Nat Rev Neurosci 10(6):397–409. https://doi.org/10.1038/nrn2647
van Harmelen A-L, van Tol M-J, Demenescu LR, van der Wee NJA, Veltman DJ, Aleman A, van Buchem MA, Spinhoven P, Penninx BWJH, Elzinga BM (2013) Enhanced amygdala reactivity to emotional faces in adults reporting childhood emotional maltreatment. Soc Cogn Affect Neurosci 8(4):362–369. https://doi.org/10.1093/scan/nss007
VanTieghem MR, Tottenham N (2018) Neurobiological programming of early life stress: functional development of amygdala-prefrontal circuitry and vulnerability for stress-related psychopathology. Curr Top Behav Neurosci 38:117–136. https://doi.org/10.1007/7854_2016_42
Weems CF, Klabunde M, Russell JD, Reiss AL, Carrión VG (2015) Post-traumatic stress and age variation in amygdala volumes among youth exposed to trauma. Soc Cogn Affect Neurosci 10(12):1661–1667. https://doi.org/10.1093/scan/nsv053
Weissman DG, Gelardi KL, Conger RD, Robins RW, Hastings PD, Guyer AE (2018) Adolescent externalizing problems: contributions of community crime exposure and neural function during emotion introspection in Mexican-origin youth. J Res Adolesc 28(2):551–563. https://doi.org/10.1111/jora.12358
Weissman DG, Jenness JL, Colich NL, Miller AB, Sambrook KA, Sheridan MA, McLaughlin KA (2020a) Altered neural processing of threat-related information in children and adolescents exposed to violence: a transdiagnostic mechanism contributing to the emergence of psychopathology. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 59(11):1274–1284. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaac.2019.08.471
Weissman DG, Lambert HK, Rodman AM, Peverill M, Sheridan MA, McLaughlin KA (2020b) Reduced hippocampal and amygdala volume as a mechanism underlying stress sensitization to depression following childhood trauma. Depress Anxiety 37(9):916–925. https://doi.org/10.1002/da.23062
Williams LM (2017) Defining biotypes for depression and anxiety based on large-scale circuit dysfunction: a theoretical review of the evidence and future directions for clinical translation. Depress Anxiety 34(1):9–24. https://doi.org/10.1002/da.22556
Wu H, Mata J, Furman DJ, Whitmer AJ, Gotlib IH, Thompson RJ (2017) Anticipatory and consummatory pleasure and displeasure in major depressive disorder: an experience sampling study. J Abnorm Psychol 126(2):149–159. https://doi.org/10.1037/abn0000244
Acknowledgements
Preparation of this paper was supported by the National Institutes of Health (Grants R37MH101495 to IHG and F32MH120975 to RC), the Klingenstein Third Generation Foundation (RC), and the Stanford Center on Longevity (JGM).
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2022 The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Miller, J.G., Chahal, R., Gotlib, I.H. (2022). Early Life Stress and Neurodevelopment in Adolescence: Implications for Risk and Adaptation. In: Miczek, K.A., Sinha, R. (eds) Neuroscience of Social Stress. Current Topics in Behavioral Neurosciences, vol 54. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/7854_2022_302
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/7854_2022_302
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, Cham
Print ISBN: 978-3-031-04255-3
Online ISBN: 978-3-031-04256-0
eBook Packages: Biomedical and Life SciencesBiomedical and Life Sciences (R0)