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Comparative performance evaluation of handpump water-supply technologies in northern Kenya and The Gambia

Evaluation comparative de la performance des technologies d’alimentation en eau au moyen de pompes à bras au Nord Kenya et en Gambie

Evaluación comparativa del rendimiento de las tecnologías de abastecimiento de agua de bombas manuales en el norte de Kenia y Gambia

肯尼亚北部和冈比亚手摇泵供水技术对比性能评估

Avaliação comparativa do desempenho de tecnologias de bombas-de-agua manuais no Norte do Quénia e em Gambia

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Abstract

Safe drinking water for all is unlikely to be achieved without major improvements in the sustainability of rural water supplies in sub-Saharan Africa. Despite heavy dependence on groundwater across the African continent, there is little empirical evidence on the relative reliability of different water-lifting technologies. This study comparatively evaluated the operational performance of the BluePump against the Afridev, India Mark II and PB Mark II handpumps. The field assessment took place in Turkana County (northern Kenya) and The Gambia, contexts with contrasting environmental, social and institutional characteristics. When controlling for other variables, in both study sites the BluePump had significantly lower odds of a breakdown occurring over a 12-month period compared with other handpumps. The BluePump also had significantly lower odds of a nonfunctional status relative to the Afridev in Turkana, though no significant effect on functionality was observed relative to the India Mark II in either study site or the PB Mark II in The Gambia. In Turkana, the impact of fewer breakdowns on operational uptime and point-in-time functionality may have been moderated by a subsidised maintenance service for which communities pay a fixed annual fee irrespective of handpump type and breakdown frequency. In The Gambia, the BluePump had significantly longer breakdowns than Mark II handpumps because of a problematic maintenance model. The results indicate that technological innovations such as the BluePump can lead to operational improvements, but technology alone is no panacea and the long-term sustainability of water supplies ultimately depends upon the effectiveness of maintenance services.

Résumé

Il est peu probable que l’objectif d’une eau potable sure pour tous sera atteint sans des améliorations majeures de la durabilité des alimentations en eau rurales en Afrique subsaharienne. Malgré une forte dépendance vis à vis des eaux souterraines sur tout le continent africain, il existe peu de preuves empiriques sur la fiabilité relative des différentes technologies de pompage. Cette étude évalue de manière comparée la performance opérationnelle de la BluePump par rapport aux pompes à bras Afridev, l’India Mark II et la PB Mark II. L’évaluation de terrain a été menée dans le Comté de Turkana (Nord Kenya) et en Gambie, des contextes avec des caractéristiques contrastées en terme environnemental, social et institutionnel. Dans les deux sites d’étude, par comparaison avec les autres pompes à bras sur une période de 12 mois, lorsque les autres variables sont sous contrôle, la BluePump a significativement un moindre risque de panne. La BluePump a aussi significativement moins de risques d’être en état de non fonctionnement que l’Afridev au Turkana, bien qu’aucune différence significative de fonctionnement n’ait été observée avec l’India Mark II sur chacun des sites d’étude et avec la PB Mark II en Gambie. Au Turkana, l’impact d’un moindre taux de pannes sur le temps de fonctionnement opérationnel et de fonctionnement à tout instant peut résulter de l’existence d’un service de maintenance subventionné pour lequel les communautés payent une redevance annuelle fixe quel que soit le type de pompe et la fréquence de rupture. En Gambie, la BluePump a des pannes significativement plus longues que celles des pompes à bras Mark II à cause d’une organisation pour la maintenance qui pose problème. Ce résultat indique que les innovations technologiques telles que la BluePump peuvent conduire à des améliorations opérationnelles mais que la technologie seule n’est. pas une panacée et que la durabilité à long terme des alimentations en eau dépend en définitive de l’efficacité des services de maintenance.

Resumen

Es poco probable que se logre agua potable segura sin mayores mejoras en la sostenibilidad de los suministros de agua en zonas rurales del África subsahariana. A pesar de la fuerte dependencia de las aguas subterráneas en todo el continente africano, existe poca evidencia empírica sobre la fiabilidad relativa de las diferentes tecnologías de elevación de agua. Este estudio evaluó comparativamente el rendimiento operativo de BluePump frente a las bombas de mano Afridev, India Mark II y PB Mark II. La evaluación de campo tuvo lugar en el condado de Turkana (norte de Kenia) y Gambia, con contextos de características ambientales, sociales e institucionales contrastantes. Al controlar otras variables, en ambos sitios de estudio, BluePump tuvo una probabilidad significativamente menor de una falla que ocurriera durante un período de 12 meses en comparación con otras bombas manuales. El BluePump también tuvo probabilidades significativamente menores de un estado no funcional en relación con el Afridev en Turkana, aunque no se observó un efecto significativo sobre la funcionalidad en relación con el India Mark II en cualquiera de los sitios de estudio o el PB Mark II en Gambia. En Turkana, el impacto de un menor número de averías en el tiempo de actividad operativa y la funcionalidad de un punto en el tiempo puede haber sido moderado por un servicio de mantenimiento subsidiado para el cual las comunidades pagan una tarifa fija anual independientemente del tipo de bomba manual y de la frecuencia de averías. En Gambia, el BluePump tuvo fallas significativamente más largas que las bombas de mano Mark II debido a un modelo de mantenimiento problemático. Los resultados indican que las innovaciones tecnológicas como BluePump pueden conducir a mejoras operativas, pero la tecnología por sí sola no es una panacea y la sostenibilidad a largo plazo de los suministros de agua depende en última instancia de la efectividad de los servicios de mantenimiento.

摘要

在撒哈拉以南非洲地区,农村供水可持续性如果得不到大的改善,所有人就不可能获取安全的饮用水。尽管非洲大陆严重以来于地下水,但很少有不同提水技术相关可靠性的试验证据。本研究笔记评估了奥和BluePump、Afridev、 India Mark II 以及PB Mark II几种手摇泵的操作性能。在(肯尼亚北部)Turkana县和冈比亚针对不同的环境、社会和制度特征进行了野外评价。当控制其它变量时,两个研究场地的BluePump泵与其它手摇泵相比,在12个月的时期内发生故障的几率较低。在Turkana 县,BluePump手摇泵相对于Afridev手摇泵无功能状态的几率也很低,尽管没有观测到两个场地的India Mark II手摇泵和冈比亚的PB Mark II手摇泵的功能性有重要的影响。在Turkana 县,很少的故障对正常运行时间和时间点功能性的影响可以通过付费的维修服务得到缓解,社区针对无论什么类型的手摇泵和故障频率每年支付固定的费用。在冈比亚,BluePump手摇泵发生故障的时间要比India Mark II手摇泵要长很多,这是因为维护模式有问题。结果表明,技术创新诸如BluePump手摇泵可改善运行状态,但是单凭技术并不是灵丹妙药,供水的长期可持续性最终要依赖于维修服务的效力。

Resumo

Será improvável alcançar água potável para todos sem melhorias significativas na sustentabilidade nas fontes de abastecimento na África subsaariana. Apesar de uma forte dependência na água subterrânea em todo o continente Africano, existe pouca evidencia empírica sobre o desempenho de diferentes tecnologias de extração de água. Este estudo avaliou comparativamente o desempenho da BluePump com as bombas manuais Afridev, India Mark II e PB Mark II. A avaliação de campo foi realizada no Município de Turkana (Norte do Quenia) e em Gambia, contextos com características ambientais, sociais e institucionais contrastantes. Controlando para outras variáveis, em ambos os países o BluePump apresenta menor probabilidade de avaria durante um período de 12 meses em comparação com as outras bombas manuais. O BluePump apresenta também significativamente menor probabilidade de atingir um estado não funcional em relação ao Afridev em Turkana, apesar de não existir um efeito significativo em relação ao India Mark II em ambos os estudos de caso, ou em relação ao PB Mark II em Gambia. Em Turkana, o impacto de menos avarias sobre o tempo operacional e funcionalidade pontual poderá ter sido moderado por um serviço de manutenção subsidiado, pelo qual comunidades pagam uma taxa anual fixa independentemente do tipo de bomba ou frequência de avaria. Em Gambia, o BluePump teve avarias significativamente mais extensas que as bombas Mark II devido ao modelo de manutenção problemático. Os resultados indicam que inovações tecnologias tais como o BLuePump podem levar a melhorias operacionais, mas que a tecnologia por si só não é uma panaceia e que a sustentabilidade do fornecimento de água a longo termo depende da eficácia dos serviços de manutenção.

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Acknowledgements

This study was supported with funding from Oxfam and the University of Technology Sydney. The authors wish to thank Peter Harvey, Richard Carter, Sean Furey and Rob Hope, who provided helpful guidance on the evaluation design. The authors also owe a debt of gratitude to Nicholas Sikenyi, Mark Nakalale, Robert Samal, Sepharinus Owino Onyango and Ebrima Touray for their support throughout the course of the field work; Joseph Nganga and the Turkana Water Project team at the Diocese of Lodwar for providing information on maintenance activities; and the water users and representatives of various organisations who participated in the assessment.

Funding

Oxfam, which has installed BluePumps, Afridevs and India Mark II handpumps in Kenya since 2007, funded field work costs for the Turkana component of the evaluation. The remainder of the evaluation (including field work costs for The Gambia) was funded through the Chancellor’s Postdoctoral Research Fellowship scheme at the University of Technology Sydney.

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Correspondence to Tim Foster.

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The authors declare no conflict of interest and have no financial interest in any of the handpump designs discussed in the paper.

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Appendix

Appendix

Table 13 Unadjusted associations between handpump type and a nonfunctional status (logistic regression)
Table 14 Unadjusted associations between handpump type and breakdown frequency in previous 12 months (logistic regression)
Table 15 Unadjusted associations between handpump type and downtime (linear regression)
Table 16 Types of mechanical faults repaired by Diocese of Lodwar in Turkana (2011–2015)
Fig. 4
figure 4

Handpump models included in the evaluation

Fig. 5
figure 5

User satisfaction with ease of operation by static water level, in a Turkana and b The Gambia

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Foster, T., McSorley, B. & Willetts, J. Comparative performance evaluation of handpump water-supply technologies in northern Kenya and The Gambia. Hydrogeol J 27, 535–551 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10040-018-1865-4

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