Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Effects from Exposures to Human Bioeffluents and Carbon Dioxide

  • Living reference work entry
  • First Online:
Handbook of Indoor Air Quality

Abstract

This chapter summarizes information published to date on the effects of human bioeffluents and carbon dioxide (CO2) on cognitive performance. Few studies have been carried out in this domain. They used simulated office tasks such as mathematical calculation and proof-reading and highly demanding cognitive tasks such as decision-making tests and simulated flights to examine the effects on cognitive performance. Concerning the effects of bioeffluents, the literature shows that the performance of simulated office work was reduced at CO2 levels above 3000 ppm; at CO2 levels between 1600 ppm and 3000 ppm, the effects have been observed; below 1600 ppm, no effects were observed. For highly demanding tasks, the effects were seen at the CO2 level of 950 ppm and over. Concerning the effects of pure CO2, it was shown that highly demanding tasks were affected at the levels at and over 1000 ppm; however, the results were inconsistent in the published studies, some showing no effects above 1000 ppm; for the tasks simulating office work, incidental effects were seen at CO2 level of 1200 ppm and 3000 ppm and no effects until 20,000 ppm, and even higher concentrations. These results require validation in future experiments, and mechanisms underlying the observed effects need to be delineated, especially since studies with human cells, ex vivo, indicate physiological impacts at the levels of 1000 ppm and higher, above the background level of CO2. Potential confounders also need careful examination, and they include, among others, an accurate exposure control, quality of cognitive performance measures, population diversities, and the length of exposure.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution

Institutional subscriptions

References

  • Adolph EF, Nance FD, Shiling MS (1929) The carbon dioxide capacity of the human body and the progressive effects of carbon dioxide upon the breathing. Am J Physiol Leg Content 87:532–541

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Aida A, Miyamoto K, Nishimura M, Aiba M, Kira S, Kawakami Y, the Respiratory Failure Research Group in Japan (1998) Prognostic value of hypercapnia in patients with chronic respiratory failure during long-term oxygen therapy. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 158:188–193

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Allen JG, MacNaughton P, Satish U, Santanam S, Vallarino J, Spengler JD (2016) Associations of cognitive function scores with carbon dioxide, ventilation, and volatile organic compound exposures in office workers: a controlled exposure study of green and conventional office environments. Environ Health Perspect 124(6):805–812

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Allen JG, MacNaughton P, Cedeno-Laurent JG, Cao XD, Flanigan S, Vallarino J, Rueda F, Donnelly-McLay D, Spengler JD (2019) Airplane pilot flight performance on 21 maneuvers in a flight simulator under varying carbon dioxide concentrations. J Expo Sci Environ Epidemiol 29(4):457–468

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Apte MG, Fisk WJ, Daisey JM (2000) Associations between indoor CO2 concentrations and sick building syndrome symptoms in U.S. office buildings: an analysis of the 1994–1996 BASE study data. Indoor Air 10(4):246–257

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bakó-Biró Z (2004) Human perception, SBS symptoms and performance of office work during exposure to air polluted by building materials and personal computers. Ph.D. dissertation. Technical University of Denmark, Copenhagen

    Google Scholar 

  • Basner M, Nasrini J, Hermosillo E, McGuire S, Dinges DF, Moore TM, Gur RC, Rittweger J, Mulder E, Wittkowski M, Donoviel D, Stevens B, Bershad EM (2017) Effects of −12° head-down tilt with and without elevated levels of CO2 on cognitive performance: the SPACECOT study. J Appl Physiol 124(3):750–760

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Battisti-Charbonney A, Fisher J, Duffin J (2011) The cerebrovascular response to carbon dioxide in humans. J Physiol 589(12):3039–3048

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bloch-Salisbury E, Lansing R, Shea SA (2003) Acute changes in carbon dioxide levels alter the electroencephalogram without affecting cognitive function. Psychophysiology 37(4):418–426

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Diaper A, Nutt DJ, Munafò MR, White JL, Farmer EW, Bailey JE (2012) The effects of 7.5% carbon dioxide inhalation on task performance in healthy volunteers. J Psychopharmacol 26(4):487–496

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Du B, Tandoc M, Mack ML, Siegel JA (2020) Indoor CO2 concentrations and cognitive function: a critical review. Indoor Air 30(6):1067–1082

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Fisk W, Wargocki P, Zhang XJ (2019) Do indoor CO2 levels directly affect perceived air quality, health, or work performance? ASHRAE J 61(9):70–77

    Google Scholar 

  • Garner M, Attwood A, Baldwin DS, James A, Munafò MR (2011) Inhalation of 7.5% carbon dioxide increases threat processing in humans. Neuropsychopharmacology 36(8):1557–1562

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Haran FJ, Lovelace A (2015) Effects of inspired CO2 and breathing resistance on neurocognitive and postural stability in U.S. Navy divers. Defense Technical Information Center, Fort Belvoir. https://doi.org/10.21236/AD1003579

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • James JT (2013) Surprising effects of CO2 exposure on decision making. In: 43rd international conference on environmental systems. Presented at the 43rd international conference on environmental systems, American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Vail, CO. https://doi.org/10.2514/6.2013-3463

  • James J, Matty C, Meyers V, Sipes W, Scully R (2011) Crew health and performance improvements with reduced carbon dioxide levels and the resource impact to accomplish those reductions. American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics. https://doi.org/10.2514/6.2011-5047

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Janssens JP, Pache JC, Nicod LP (1999) Physiological changes in respiratory function associated with aging. Eur Respir J 13:197–205

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kajtar L, Herczeg L (2012) Influence of carbon-dioxide concentration on human well-being and intensity of mental work. Q J Hung Meteorol Serv 116:145–169

    Google Scholar 

  • Kawata N, Tatsumi K, Terada J, Tada Y, Tanabe N, Takiguchi Y, Kuriyama T (2007) Daytime hypercapnia in obstructive sleep apnea syndrome. Chest 132:1832–1838

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kim J, Kong M, Hong T, Jeong K, Lee M (2018) Physiological response of building occupants based on their activity and the indoor environmental quality condition changes. Build Environ 145:96–103

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lee J, Wan Kim T, Lee C, Koo C (2022) Integrated approach to evaluating the effect of indoor CO2 concentration on human cognitive performance and neural responses in office environment. J Manag Eng 38:04021085. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)ME.1943-5479.000099

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Liu WW, Zhong WD, Wargocki P (2017) Performance, acute health symptoms, and physiological responses during exposure to high air temperature and carbon dioxide concentration. Build Environ 114:96–105

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Lu CY, Lin JM, Chen YY, Chen YC (2015) Building-related symptoms among office employees associated with indoor carbon dioxide and total volatile organic compounds. Int J Environ Res Public Health 12(6):5833–5845

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Maddalena R, Mendell MJ, Eliseeva K, Chan WR, Sullivan DP, Russell M, Satish U, Fisk WJ (2015) Effects of ventilation rate per person and per floor area on perceived air quality, sick building syndrome symptoms, and decision-making. Indoor Air 25(4):362–370

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Madden JA (1993) The effect of carbon dioxide on cerebral arteries. Pharmacol Ther 59(2):229–250

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Maniscalco J, Hoffmeyer F, Monsé C, Jettkant B, Marek E, Brüning T, Bünger J, Sucker K (2021) Physiological responses, self-reported health effects, and cognitive performance during exposure to carbon dioxide at 20 000 ppm. Indoor Air. https://doi.org/10.1111/ina.12939

  • Manzey D, Lorenz B (1998) Joint NASA-ESA-DARA study. Part three: effects of chronically elevated CO2 on mental performance during 26 days of confinement. Aviat Space Environ Med 69(5):506–514

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Maula H, Hongisto V, Naatula V, Haapakangas A, Koskela H (2017) The effect of low ventilation rate with elevated bioeffluent concentration on work performance, perceived indoor air quality, and health symptoms. Indoor Air 27(6):1141–1153

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • McSwain SD (2010) End-tidal and arterial carbon dioxide measurements correlate across all levels of physiologic dead space. Respir Care 55:6

    Google Scholar 

  • Myhrvold AN, Olsen E, Lauridsen Ø, (1996) Indoor environment in schools-pupils’ health and performance in regard to CO2 concentrations. In: Proceedings of Indoor Air ’96, vol 1, pp 369–374

    Google Scholar 

  • NIOSH (1976) Criteria for a recommended standard: occupational exposure to carbon dioxide. https://doi.org/10.26616/NIOSHPUB76194

  • Nishihara N, Wargocki P, Tanabe S (2014) Cerebral blood flow, fatigue, mental effort, and task performance in offices with two different pollution loads. Build Environ 71:153–164

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • OSHA (2019) Permissible exposure limits – annotated tables. Occupational Safety and Health Administration (WWW document). https://www.osha.gov/annotated-pels. Accessed 13 May 2021

  • Patterson JL, Heyman A, Battey LL, Ferguson RW (1955) Threshold of response of the cerebral vessels of man to increase in blood carbon dioxide. J Clin Investig 34(12):1857–1864

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Permentier K, Vercammen S, Soetaert S, Schellemans C (2017) Carbon dioxide poisoning: a literature review of an often forgotten cause of intoxication in the emergency department. Int J Emerg Med 10(1):14

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Reich T, Rusinek H (1989) Cerebral cortical and white matter reactivity to carbon dioxide. Stroke 20(4):453–457

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Rodeheffer CD, Sarah C, Clarke JM, Fothergill DM (2018) Acute exposure to low-to-moderate carbon dioxide levels and submariner decision-making. Aerosp Med Hum Perform 89(6):520–525

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Satish U, Mendell MJ, Shekhar K, Hotchi T, Sullivan D, Streufert S, Fisk WJ (2012) Is CO2 an indoor pollutant? Direct effects of low-to-moderate CO2 concentrations on human decision-making performance. Environ Health Perspect 120(12):1671–1677

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Sayers JA, Smith RE, Holland RL, Keatinge WR (1987) Effects of carbon dioxide on mental performance. J Appl Physiol 63(1):25–30

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Schaefer KE, Hastings BJ, Carey CR, Nichols G (1963) Respiratory acclimatization to carbon dioxide. J Appl Physiol 18(6):1071–1078

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Scully RR, Basner M, Nasrini J, Lam CW, Hermosillo E, Gur RC, Moore T, Alexander DJ, Satish U, Ryder VE (2019) Effects of acute exposures to carbon dioxide on decision making and cognition in astronaut-like subjects. NPJ Microgravity 5:17

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Seed RF, Shakespeare TF, Muldoon MJ (1970) Carbon dioxide homeostasis during anaesthesia for laparoscopy. Anaesthesia 25:223–231

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Selkirk A, Shykoff B, Briggs J (2010) Cognitive effects of hypercapnia on immersed working divers. Defense Technical Information Center, Fort Belvoir. https://doi.org/10.21236/ADA561029

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Sheehy JB, Kamon E, Kiser D (1982) Effects of carbon dioxide inhalation on psychomotor and mental performance during exercise and recovery. Hum Factors 24:581–588

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Sliwka U, Krasney JA, Simon SG, Schmidt P, Noth J (1998) Effects of sustained low-level elevations of carbon dioxide on cerebral blood flow and autoregulation of the intracerebral arteries in humans. Aviat Space Environ Med 69:299–306

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Snow S, Boyson AS, Paas KHW, Gough H, King MF, Barlow J, Noakes CJ, Schraefel MC (2019) Exploring the physiological, neurophysiological, and cognitive performance effects of elevated carbon dioxide concentrations indoors. Build Environ 156:243–252

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sweller J (2011) Cognitive load theory. In: Psychology of learning and motivation, vol 55. Elsevier, San Diego, pp 37–76

    Google Scholar 

  • Thom SR, Bhopale VM, Hu J, Yang M (2017) Increased carbon dioxide levels stimulate neutrophils to produce microparticles and activate the nucleotide-binding domain-like receptor 3 inflammasome. Free Radic Biol Med 106:406–416

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Vehviläinen T, Lindholm H, Rintamäki H, Pääkkönen R, Hirvonen A, Niemi O, Vinha J (2016) High indoor CO2 concentrations in an office environment increases the transcutaneous CO2 level and sleepiness during cognitive work. J Occup Environ Hyg 13:19–29

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Vercruyssen M (2014) Breathing carbon dioxide (4% for 1-hour) slows response selection, not stimulus encoding. Proc Hum Factors Ergon Soc Annu Meet 58(1):914–918

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Vercruyssen M, Kamon E, Hancock PA (2007) Effects of carbon dioxide inhalation on psychomotor and mental performance during exercise and recovery. Int J Occup Saf Ergon 13(1):15–27

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Wasserman AJ, Patterson JL, Hunter AR (1962) The cerebral vascular response to reduction in arterial carbon dioxide tension. Surv Anesthesiol 6(3):238–239

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Xia YL, Shikii S, Shimomura Y (2020) Determining how different levels of indoor carbon dioxide affect human monotonous task performance and their effects on human activation states using a lab experiment: a tracking task. Ergonomics 63(11):1350–1358

    Google Scholar 

  • Xu F, Uh J, Brier MR, Hart J, Yezhuvath US, Gu H, Yang Y, Lu H (2011) The influence of carbon dioxide on brain activity and metabolism in conscious humans. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab 31(1):58–67

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Young WL, Prohovnik I, Ornstein E, Ostapkovich N, Matteo RS (1991) Cerebral blood flow reactivity to changes in carbon dioxide calculated using end-tidal versus arterial tensions. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab 11:1031–1035

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Zhang XJ, Wargocki P, Lian ZW (2016) Human responses to carbon dioxide, a follow-up study at recommended exposure limits in non-industrial environments. Build Environ 100:162–171

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zhang XJ, Wargocki P, Lian ZW, Thyregod C (2017a) Effects of exposure to carbon dioxide and bioeffluents on perceived air quality, self-assessed acute health symptoms, and cognitive performance. Indoor Air 27(1):47–64

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Zhang XJ, Wargocki P, Lian ZW (2017b) Physiological responses during exposure to carbon dioxide and bioeffluents at levels typically occurring indoors. Indoor Air 27(1):65–77

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zhang XJ, Wargocki P, Lian ZW, Xie JC, Liu JP (2017c) Responses to human bioeffluents at levels recommended by ventilation standards. Procedia Eng 205:609–614

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Zhang J, Pang LP, Cao XD, Wanyan XR, Wang X, Liang J, Zhang L (2020) The effects of elevated carbon dioxide concentration and mental workload on task performance in an enclosed environmental chamber. Build Environ 178:106938

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zhang J, Cao XD, Wang X, Pang LP, Liang J, Zhang L (2021) Physiological responses to elevated carbon dioxide concentration and mental workload during performing MATB tasks. Build Environ 195:107752

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Beijing Key Laboratory of Green Built Environment and Energy Efficient Technology, College of Architecture and Civil Engineering, Beijing University of Technology, Beijing, China

    Xiaojing Zhang

  2. SinBerBEST, Berkeley Education Alliance for Research in Singapore, Singapore, Singapore

    Asit Mishra

  3. International Centre for Indoor Environment and Energy, Department of Civil Engineering, Technical University of Denmark, Kongens Lyngby, Denmark

    Pawel Wargocki

Authors
  1. Xiaojing Zhang
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Asit Mishra
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Pawel Wargocki
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Xiaojing Zhang .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Building Science, Tsinghua University Department of Building Science, Beijing, Beijing, China

    Yinping Zhang

  2. Chemical & Biomolecular Engineering, Clarkson University, Potsdam, NY, USA

    Philip K. Hopke

  3. Scientific and Technical Centre for Building (CSTB), Marne-La-Vallée, France

    Corinne Mandin

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2022 Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd.

About this entry

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this entry

Zhang, X., Mishra, A., Wargocki, P. (2022). Effects from Exposures to Human Bioeffluents and Carbon Dioxide. In: Zhang, Y., Hopke, P.K., Mandin, C. (eds) Handbook of Indoor Air Quality. Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-10-5155-5_63-1

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-10-5155-5_63-1

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Publisher Name: Springer, Singapore

  • Print ISBN: 978-981-10-5155-5

  • Online ISBN: 978-981-10-5155-5

  • eBook Packages: Springer Reference Earth and Environm. ScienceReference Module Physical and Materials ScienceReference Module Earth and Environmental Sciences

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation