Abstract
Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are ubiquitous pollutants worldwide; currently, they are being described as potential persistent organic pollutants (POPs). This study is aimed to identify sources of PAHs in the atmosphere around the Sihwa and Banwol industrial area by using diagnostic ratios and multivariate factor analysis such as principal component analysis/absolute principal component score (PCA/APCS) and positive matrix factorization (PMF). The atmospheric PAHs level was 8.07–177 ng/m3 (gaseous phase: 5.93–68.4 ng/m3; particulate phase: 1.85–128 ng/m3) and PAHs concentration in the warm period was lower than the cold period. As a result of the examination of relative BaP concentration, photodecomposition was found not to be an important factor in the seasonal difference of PAHs concentration in this study. Source identification was first carried out through a double ratio plot. As a result of double ratio plots, atmospheric PAHs in this study were found to stem from the combination of vehicular emission, combustion (coal or biomass–wood or grass), and petroleum. Moreover, PCA/APCS and PMF showed that the main sources were vehicular emission and coal combustion and and incineration-related source with a summed contribution of about 72.6–86.7%. Finally, the fitness of the two models was very good; the estimated values were highly correlated with the measured values (R 2 = 0.991–0.999, p < 0.05).
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Abas MRB, Rahman NA, Omar NYMJ, Maah MJ, Samah AA, Oros DR, Otto A, Simoneit BRT (2004) Organic composition of aerosol particulate matter during a haze episode in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. Atmos Environ 38:4223–4241
Bae SY, Yi SM, Kim YP (2002) Temporal and spatial variations of the particle size distribution of PAHs and their dry deposition fluxes in Korea. Atmos Environ 36:5491–5500
Baumard P, Budzinski H, Garrigues P (1998) Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in sediments and mussels of the western Mediterranean Sea. Environ Toxicol Chem 17:765–776
Boonyatumanond R, Murakami M, Wayyatakorn G, Togo A, Takada H (2007) Sources of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in street dust in a tropical Asian mega-city, Bangkok, Thailand. Sci Total Environ 384:420–432
Boström CE, Gerde P, Hanberg A, Jernström B, Johansson C, Kyrklund T, Rannug A, Törnqvist M, Victorin K, Westerholm R (2002) Cancer risk assessment, indicators, and guidelines for polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in the ambient air. Environ Health Perspect 110:451–489
Budzinski H, Jones I, Bellocq J, Pierard C, Garrigues P (1997) Evaluation of sediment contamination by polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in the Gironde estuary. Marine Chem 58:85–97
Bzdusek PA, Christensen ER, Li A, Zou Q (2004) Source apportionment of sediment PAHs in Lake Calumet, Chicago: application of factor analysis with nonnegative constraints. Environ Sci Technol 38:97–103
Dickhut RM, Canuel EA, Gustafson KE, Liu K, Arzayus KM, Walker SE, Edgecombe G, Gaylor MO, Macdonald EH (2000) Automotive sources of carcinogenic polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons associated with particulate matter in the Chesapeake Bay region. Environ Sci Technol 34:4635–4640
Dong TTT, Lee BK (2009) Characteristics, toxicity and source apportionment of polycylic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in road dust of Ulsan, Korea. Chemosphere 74:1245–1253
Edlund S (2001) Possibilities, implications and appropriateness of regulating global emissions of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons through the Stockholm convention on persistent organic pollutants. Master’s thesis, The International Institute of Industrial Environmental Economics, Lund University
Fang MD, Hsieh PC, Ko FC, Baker JE, Lee CL (2007) Sources and distribution of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in the sediments of Kaoping River and Submarine Canyon system. Marine Pollut Bull 54:1179–1189
Guo H, Lee SC, Ho KF, Wang XM, Zou SC (2003) Particle-associated polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in urban air of Hong Kong. Atmos Environ 37:5307–5317
Guo H, Wang T, Simpson IJ, Blake DR, Yu XM, Kwok YH, Li YS (2004) Source contributions to ambient VOCs and CO at a rural site in eastern China. Atmos Environ 38:4551–4560
Guo ZG, Lin T, Zhang G, Yang ZS, Fang M (2006) High-resolution depositional records of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in the central continental shelf mud of the East China Sea. Environ Sci Technol 40:5304–5311
Harrison RM, Smith DJT, Luhana L (1996) Source apportionment of atmospheric polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons collected from an urban location in Birmingham, UK. Environ Sci Technol 30:825–832
Ito K, Xue N, Thurston G (2004) Spatial variation of PM 25 chemical species and source-apportioned mass concentrations in New York City. Atmos Environ 38:5269–5282
Kavouras IG, Koutrakis P, Tsapakis M, Lagoudaki E, Stephanou EG, Baer DV, Oyola P (2001) Source apportionment of urban particulate aliphatic and polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) using multivariate methods. Environ Sci Technol 35:2288–2294
Khalili NR, Scheff PA, Holsen TM (1995) PAH source fingerprints for coke ovens, diesel and, gasoline engines, highway tunnels, and wood combustion emissions. Atmos Environ 29:533–542
KOSIS (2007) Korea statistical information service. http://kosis.kr
Kulkarni P, Venkataraman C (2000) Atmospheric polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in Mumbai, India. Atmos Environ 34:2785–2790
Larsen RK III, Baker JE (2003) Source apportionment of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in the urban atmosphere: a comparison of three methods. Environ Sci Technol 37:1873–1881
Lee BK, Lee CB (2004) Development of an improved dry and wet deposition collector and the atmospheric deposition of PAHs onto Ulsan Bay, Korea. Atmos Environ 38:863–871
Lee E, Chan CK, Paatero P (1999) Application of positive matrix factorization in source apportionment of particulate pollutants in Hong Kong. Atmos Environ 33:3201–3212
Liu S, Tao S, Liu W, Dou H, Liu Y, Zhao J, Little MG, Tian Z, Wang J, Wang L, Gao Y (2008) Seasonal and spatial occurrence and distribution of atmospheric polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in rural and urban areas of the North Chinese Plain. Environ Pollut 156:651–656
Manoli E, Kouras A, Samara C (2004) Profile analysis of ambient and source emitted particle-bound polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons from three sites in northern Greece. Chemosphere 56:867–878
Miller SL, Anderson MJ, Daly EP, Milford JB (2002) Source apportionment of exposures to volatile organic compounds I. Evaluation of receptor models using simulated exposure data. Atmos Environ 36:3629–3641
Motelay-Massei A, Ollivon D, Garban B, Tiphagne-Larcher K, Zimmerlin I, Chevreuil M (2007) PAHs in the bulk atmospheric deposition of the Seine river basin: source identification and apportionment by ratios, multivariate statistical techniques and scanning electron microscopy. Chemosphere 67:312–321
Muendo M, Hanai Y, Kameda Y, Masunaga S (2006) Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in urban air: concentration level, patterns, and source analysis in Nairobi, Kenya. Environ Forens 7:147–157
Nees M (1994) Quality assurance handbook for air pollution measurement systems, volume I: a field guide to environmental quality assurance. US EPA, Research Triangle Park, NC
Nicolas J, Chiari M, Crespo J, Orellana IG, Lucarelli F, Nava S, Pastor C, Yubero E (2008) Quantification of Saharan and local dust impact in an arid Mediterranean area by the positive matrix factorization (PMF) technique. Atmos Environ 42:8872–8882
Norris G, Vedantham R, Wade K, Brown S, Prouty J, Foley C (2008) EPA positive matrix factorization (PMF) 30 fundamentals and user’s guide. US Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Research and Development, Washington DC
Omar NYMJ, Mon TC, Rahman NA, Abas RB (2006) Distributions and health risks of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in atmospheric aerosols of Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. Sci Total Environ 369:76–81
Paatero P (1997) Least squares formulation of robust non-negative factor analysis. Chemometr Intell Lab 37:23–35
Paatero P, Tapper U (1994) Positive matrix factorization: a non-negative factor model with optimal utilization of error estimates of data values. Environmetrics 5:111–126
Park SS, Kim YJ, Kang CH (2002) Atmospheric polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in Seoul, Korea. Atmos Environ 36:2917–2924
Polissar AV, Hopke PK, Paatero P, Malm WC, Sisler JF (1998) Atmospheric aerosol over Alaska 2 Elemental composition and sources. J Geophys Res 103:19045–19057
Polkowska Z, Kot A, Wiergowski M, Wolska L, Wolowska K, Namiesnick J (2000) Organic pollutants in precipitation: determination of pesticides and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in Gdansk, Poland. Atmos Environ 34:1233–1245
Ravindra K, Bencs L, Wauters E, Hoog JD, Deutsch F, Roekens E, Bleux N, Berghmans P, Grieken RV (2006) Seasonal and site specific variation in vapor and aerosol phase PAHs over Flanders (Belgium) and their relation with anthropogenic activities. Atmos Environ 40:771–785
Ravindra K, Sokhi R, Grieken RV (2008) Atmospheric polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons: source attribution, emission factors and regulation. Atmos Environ 42:2895–2921
Sharma H, Jain VK, Khan ZH (2007) Characterization and source identification of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in the urban environment of Delhi. Chemosphere 66:302–310
Simcik MF, Eisenreich SJ, Lioy PJ (1999) Source apportionment and source/sink relationships of PAHs in the coastal atmosphere of Chicago and Lake Michigan. Atmos Environ 33:5071–5079
Sofowote UM, Mccarry BE, Marvin CH (2008) Source apportionment of PAH in Hamilton Harbour suspended sediments: comparison of two factor analysis methods. Environ Sci Technol 42:6007–6014
Sprovieri M, Feo ML, Prevedello L, Manta DS, Sammartino S, Tamburrino S, Marsella E (2007) Heavy metals, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and polychlorinated biphenyls in surface sediments of the Naples harbour (southern Italy). Chemosphere 67:998–1009
Thurston GD, Spengler JD (1985) A quantitative assessment of source contributions to inhalable particulate matter pollution in metropolitan Boston. Atmos Environ 19:9–25
Yang HH, Chen CM (2004) Emission inventory and sources of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in the atmosphere at a suburban area in Taiwan. Chemosphere 56:879–887
Yang HH, Lai SO, Hsieh LT, Hsueh HJ, Chi TW (2002) Profiles of PAH emission from steel and iron industries. Chemosphere 48:1061–1074
Yunker MB, Macdonald RW, Vingarzan R, Mitchell RH, Goyette D, Sylvestre S (2002) PAHs in the Fraser River basin: a critical appraisal of PAH ratios as indicators of PAH source and composition. Org Geochem 33:489–515
Zhang Y, Tao S (2009) Global atmospheric emission inventory of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) for 2004. Atmos Environ 43:812–819
Zhang XL, Tao S, Liu WX, Yang Y, Zuo Q, Liu SZ (2005) Source diagnostics of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons based on species ratios: a multimedia approach. Environ Sci Technol 39:9109–9114
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Electronic supplementary material
Below is the link to the electronic supplementary material.
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Park, SU., Kim, JG., Jeong, MJ. et al. Source Identification of Atmospheric Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons in Industrial Complex Using Diagnostic Ratios and Multivariate Factor Analysis. Arch Environ Contam Toxicol 60, 576–589 (2011). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00244-010-9567-5
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00244-010-9567-5