Abstract
The successful lasing at the SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory of the Linear Coherent Light Source (LCLS), the first X-ray free-electron laser (X-ray FEL), in the wavelength range 1.5 to 15 Å, pulse duration of 60 to few femtoseconds, number of coherent photons per pulse from 1013 to 1011, is a landmark event in the development of coherent electromagnetic radiation sources. Until now electrons traversing an undulator magnet in a synchrotron radiation storage ring provided the best X-ray sources. The LCLS has set a new standard, with a peak X-ray brightness higher by ten orders of magnitudes and pulse duration shorter by three orders of magnitudes. LCLS opens a new window in the exploration of matter at the atomic and molecular scales of length and time. Taking a motion picture of chemical processes in a few femtoseconds or less, unraveling the structure and dynamics of complex molecular systems, like proteins, are some of the exciting experiments made possible by LCLS and the other X-ray FELs now being built in Europe and Asia. In this paper, we describe the history of the many theoretical, experimental and technological discoveries and innovations, starting from the 1960s and 1970s, leading to the development of LCLS.
Similar content being viewed by others
References
Allaria, E. et al. 2006. FERMI@ELETTRA : a seeded FEL facility for EUV and soft X-rays. Proc. of the 2006 International Free Electron Laser Conf., Berlin, pp. 166–169
Alley, R. et al. 1999. The design for the LCLS RF Photoinjector. Nucl. Instr. Meth. A 429: 324-331
Andruszkow, J. et al. 2000. First observation of self-amplified spontaneous emission in a free-electron laser at 109 nm wavelength. Phys. Rev. Lett. 85: 3825-3829
Arthur, J., G. Materlik and H. Winick (Eds.) 1994. Workshop on Scientific Applications of Coherent X-Rays. SLAC Rep., p. 437
Ayvazyan, V. et al. 2002. Generation of GW radiation pulses from a VUV free-electron laser operating in the femtosecond regime. Phys. Rev. Lett. 88: 104802
Babzien, M. et al. 1998. Observation of self-amplified spontaneous emission in the near-infrared and visible wavelengths. Phys. Rev. E 57: 6093-6096
Bane, K. 1987. Wakefield effects in a linear collider. Amer. Inst. Phys. Conf. Proc. 153: 971-981
Batchelor, K., H. Kirk, K. McDonald, J. Sheehan and M. Woodle. 1988. Development of a High Brightness Electrpon Gun for the Accelerator Test Facil;ity at Brookhaven National Laboratory. Proc. of the 1988 European Particle Accelerator Conf., Rome, pp. 54–958
Becker, W. and J.K. McIver. 1983. Fully quantized many-particle theory of a free-electron laser. Phys. Rev. A 27: 1030-1043
Becker, W. and M.S. Zubairy. 1982. Photon statistics of a free-electron laser. Phys. Rev. A 25: 2200-2207
Belkacem, A. et al. 2007. Design studies for a high repetition rate FEL facility at LBNL. Synchrotron Radiat. News 20: 20-27
Ben-Zvi, I., L.F. Di Mauro, S. Krinsky, M.G. White and L.H. Yu. 1991. Proposed UV FEL user facility at BNL. Nucl. Instr. Meth. A 304: 181-186
Bertolotti, M. 2005. History of the laser. Institute of Physics Publishing, Bristol
Birgenau, R.J. et al. 1997. Report of the Basic Energy Sciences Advisory Committee Panel on D.O.E. synchrotron radiation sources and science, http://www.aps.anl.gov/Science/Reports/1997/besac.pdf
Bonifacio, R., F. Casagrande and G. Casati. 1982. Cooperative and Chaotic Transition of a Free Electron Laser Hamiltonian Model. Opt. Commun. 40: 219-223
Bonifacio, R., F. Casagrande and C. Pellegrini. 1987. Hamiltonian model of a free-electron laser. Opt. Commun. 61: 55-60
Bonifacio, R., L. De Salvo Souza, P. Pierini and E.T. Scharlemann. 1990. Generation of XUV light by resonant frequency tripling in a two-wiggler FEL amplifier. Nucl. Instr. Meth. A 296: 787-790
Bonifacio, R., L. De Salvo, P. Pierini, N. Piovella and C. Pellegrini. 1994. Spectrum, Temporal Structure and Fluctuations in a High-Gain free-electron laser starting from noise. Phys. Rev. Lett. 73: 70-73
Bonifacio, R., C. Pellegrini and L. Narducci. 1984. Collective instabilities and high-gain regime in a free electron laser. Opt. Commun. 50: 373-378
Borland, M. et al. 2002. Start-to-end simulation of self amplified spontaneous emission free-electron lasers from the gun through the undulator. Nucl. Instr. Meth. A 483: 268-272
Boscolo, I. and V. Stagno. 1982. A Study of a transverse optical klystrin in Adone (TOKA). Nucl. Instr. Meth. A 198: 483-496
Bosco, P., W.B. Colson and R.A. Freeman. 1983. Quantum/classical mode evolution in free electron laser oscillators. IEEE J. Quantum Electron. QE-19: 272-281
Carlsten, B.E. 1989. New photoelectron injector design for the Los Alamos national laboratory XUV FEL accelerator. Nucl. Instr. Meth. A 285: 313-319
Chapman, H. et al. 2006. Femtosecond diffractive imaging with a soft-X-ray free-electron laser. Nature Phys. 2: 839-843
Chapman, H. et al. 2011. Femtosecond X-ray protein nanocrystallography. Nature 470: 73-78
Chattopadhyay, S., M. Cornacchia, C. Pellegrini and I. Lindau (Eds.) 2001. Physics of, and Science with, X-ray free-electron lasers. Amer. Inst. Phys. Conf. Proc. 581: 1-236
Colson, W.B. 1977. One-body electrodynamics in a free electron laser. Phys. Lett. A 64: 190-192
Cornacchia, M. and H. Winick (Eds.) 1992. Proc. of a Workshop on IV Generation Light Sources, SSRL/SLAC Rep. 92/02
Cornacchia, M. et al. 1986. Design concepts of a storage ring for a high power XUV free electron laser. Nucl. Instr. Meth. A 250: 57-63
Cornacchia, M. et al. 1998. LCLS Design Study Report, Stanford Linear Accelerator Center, SLAC R-521
Csonka, P. 1978a. Suggested method for coherent X-Ray production by combined X-ray and low energy photon pumping. Phys. Rev. A 13: 405-410
Csonka, P. 1978b. Suggestion for X-ray laser holography. Part. Accel. 8: 161-165
Dattoli, G., J.C. Gallardo, A. Renieri, M. Richetta and A. Torre. 1985. Quantum coherence properties of the FEL. Nucl. Instr. Meth. A 237: 93-99
Dattoli, G., A. Marino, A. Renieri and F. Romanelli. 1981. Progress in the Hamiltonian picture of the free-electron laser. IEEE J. Quantum Electron. QE-17: 1371-1387
Deacon, D.A.G. et al. 1977. First operation of a free-electron laser. Phys. Rev. Lett. 38: 892-894
De Ninno, G. et al. 2009. FEL Commissioning of the first stage of Fermi@Elettra. Proc. of the 2009 FEL Conf., Liverpool, pp. 635–638
Derbenev, Y.S., A.M. Kondratenko and E.L. Saldin. 1982. On the possibility of using a free electron laser for polarization control in a storage ring. Nucl. Instr. Meth. A 193: 415-421
Ding, Y. et al. 2009a. Start-to-End Simulations of the LCLS Accelerator and FEL Performance at Very Low Charge. Proc. of the 2009 Part. Acc. Conf., Vancouver, pp. 2355-2357
Ding, Y. et al. 2009b. Measurements and Simulations of Ultralow Emittance and Ultrashort Electron Beams in the Linac Coherent Light Source. Phys. Rev. Lett. 102: 254801
Dowell, D. et al. 2008. The Development of the Linac Coherent Light Source RF Gun. SLAC-Pub-13401
Elias, L. et al. 1976. Observation of stimulated emission of radiation by relativistic electrons in a spatially periodic transverse magnetic field. Phys. Rev. Lett. 36: 717-720
Emma, P., R. Carr and H.-D. Nuhn. 1999. Beam-based alignment for the LCLS FEL Undulator. Nucl. Instr. Meth. A 429: 407-413
Emma, P. et al. 2009. First Lasing of the LCLS X-Ray FEL at 1.5 Å. Proc. of the 2009 Part. Acc. Conf., Vancouver, pp. 3115-3119
Emma, P. et al. 2010. First lasing and operation of an Ångstrom-wavelength free-electron laser. Nature Photonics 176: 1-7
Faatz, B. et al. 2009. Flash Status and Upgrade. Proc. of the 2009 Free-electron Laser Conf., Liverpool, pp. 459-462
Fawley, W.M. 2001. Ginger FEL simulation code. LBNL Technical Report No. 49625
Fawley, W.M., Z. Huang, K.-J. Kim and N. Vinokurov. 2002. Tapered undulator for SASE FELs. Nucl. Instr. Meth. A 483: 537-541
Feldhaus, J. et al. 1997. Possible application of X-Ray optical elements for reducing the spectral bandwith of an X-Ray SASE FEL. Opt. Commun. 140: 341-352
Ferrario, M. et al. 2000. HOMDYN study for the LCLS rf photo-injector. in The Physics of High Brightness Beams, World Scientific Publisher, pp. 534-546
Fraser, J.S. and R.L. Sheffield. 1987. High-brightness injectors for RF-driven free-electron lasers. IEEE J. Quantum Electron. QE-23: 1489-1496
Fraser, J.S., R.L. Sheffield and E.R. Gray. 1986. A new high brightness electron injector for free electron lasers driven by RF Linacs. Nucl. Instr. Meth. A 250: 71-76
Galayda, J. 2003. Private communication
Gallardo, J. 1990. Proceedings of the Workshop Prospects for a 1 Å Free-electron Laser, Sag Harbor, N.Y. Brookhaven National Laboratory Rep. 52273
Gea-Banacloche, J., G.T. Moore and M. Scully. 1984. Prospects for an X-ray free-electron laser. Proc. SPIE 453: 393-401
Gluskin, E. et al. 2001. Optimization of the design for the LCLS undulator line. Nucl. Instr. Meth. A 475: 323-327
Gopal, S. and J. Stohr (Eds.) 2003. LCLS The first experiments SLAC report R-611
Gover, A. and P. Sprangle. 1981. A Unified Theory of Magnetic-Bremsstrahlung, Electrostatic Bremsstrahlung, Compton-Raman Scattering and Cerenkov-Smith Purcell Free Electron Laser. IEEE J. Quantum Electron. QE-17 : 1196-1215
Hartemann, S.C. et al. 1994. Initial Measurments on the UCLA RF Photoinjector. Nucl. Instr. Meth. A 340: 219-230
Heifets, S., G. Stupakov and S. Krinsky. 2002. Coherent synchrotron radiation instability in a bunch compressor. Phys. Rev. ST Accel. Beams 5: 064401
Hogan, M. et al. 1998a. Measurements of High Gain and Intensity Fluctuations in a Self-amplified, Spontaneous-Emission Free-electron Laser. Phys. Rev. Lett. 80: 289-292
Hogan, M. et al. 1998b. Measurements of gain larger than 105 at 12 μm in a self-amplified spontaneous-emission free-electron laser. Phys. Rev. Lett. 81: 4867-4870
Huang, Z. and K.-J. Kim. 2000. Three-dimensional analysis of harmonic generation in high-gain free-electron lasers. Phys. Rev. E 62: 7295-7308
Huang, Z. and K.-J. Kim. 2002. Formulas for coherent synchrotron radiation microbunching in a bunch compressor chicane. Phys. Rev. ST Accel. Beams 5: 074401
Huang, Z. et al. 2004. Suppression of microbunching instability in the linac coherent light source. Phys. Rev. ST Accel. Beams 7: 074401
Huang, Z. et al. 2010. Measurements of the linac coherent light source laser heater and its impact on the X-ray free-electron laser performance. Phys. Rev. ST Accel. Beams 13: 020703
Jacobsen, C. and J. Kirz. 1998. X-ray microscopy with synchrotron radiation. Nat. Struct. Biol. Suppl. 5: 650-653
Jerby, E. and A. Gover. 1985. Investigation of the gain regimes and gain parameters of the free electron laser dispersion equation. IEEE J. Quantum Electron. QE-21: 1041-1058
Katsouleas, T.C. et al. 2009. Scientific Assessment of high Power Free-electron Laser Technology, The National Academies Press, Washington D.C.
Kim, K.-J. 1986a. An analysis of self-amplified spontaneous emission. Nucl. Instr. Meth. A 250: 396-403
Kim, K.-J. 1986b. Three-dimensional analysis of coherent amplification and self-amplified spontaneous emission in free-electron lasers. Phys. Rev. Lett. 57: 1871-1874
Kim, K.-J. 1990. Note on RF Photo-Cathode Gun, in Proc. of a Workshop Prospects for a 1 Å Free-electron Laser, Sag Harbor, N.Y., Brookhaven National Laboratory Rep. 52273 122-135
Kirkpatrick, D.A., G. Bekefi, A.C. Dirienzo, H.P. Freund and A.K. Ganguly. 1989. A high power, 600 m wavelength free electron laser. Nucl. Instr. Meth. A 285: 43-46
Kondradenko, A.M. and E.L. Saldin. 1980. Generation of coherent radiation by a relativistic electron beam in an undulator. Part. Accel. 10: 207-216
Krinsky, S. and L.H. Yu. 1987. Output Power in guided modes for amplified Spontaneous Emission in a Single Pass Free-electron Laser. Phys. Rev. A 35: 3406-3423
Kroll, N.M. and W.A. McMullin. 1978. Stimulated Emission from relativistic electrons passing through a spatially periodic transverse magnetic field. Phys. Rev. A 17: 300-308
Kroll, N.M., P. Morton and M.N. Rosenbluth. 1981. Free-electron lasers with variable parameter Wigglers. IEEE J. Quantum Elec. QE-17: 1436-1468
LCLS. 2002. LCLS Conceptual Design Report, Stanford Linear Accelerator Center, SLAC-R-593, http://www.slac.stanford.edu/cgi-wrap/getdoc/slac-r-593.pdf
Lefevre, A.K., J. Gardelle, G. Marchese, J.L. Rullier and J.T. Donohue. 1999. Self-amplified spontaneous emission and bunching at 3 GHz in a microwave free-electron laser. Phys. Rev. Lett. 82: 323-326
Leone, S. et al. 1999. Report of the DOE Basic Energy Sciences Advisory Committee Panel on Novel Coherent Light Sources. http://www.science.doe.gov/bes/besac/reports.html
Levy, D.H. et al. 1994. Free Electron Lasers and Other Advanced Sources of Light : Scientific Research Opportunities. National Research Council, National Academies Press, http://www.nap.edu/openbook.php?record_id=9182&page=1
Lindberg, R.R. et al. 2009. Simulation Studies of the X-ray Free-electron Laser Oscillator. Proc. of the 2009 FEL Conf., Liverpool, pp. 587-590
Liouville, J. 1838. Sur la théorie de la variation des constantes arbitraries. J. Math. Pures Appl. 3: 342-349
Madey, J.M.J. 1971. Stimulated emission of bremsstrahlung in a periodic magnetic field. J. Appl. Phys. 42: 1906-1913
McDonald, K.T. 1988. Design of the laser-driven RF electron gun for the BNL accelerator test facility. IEEE Trans. Electron Devices 35: 2052-2059
Milton, S.V. et al. 2000. Observation of self-amplified spontaneous emission and exponential growth at 530 nm. Phys. Rev. Lett. 85: 988-991
Milton, S.V. et al. 2001. Exponential gain and saturation of a self-amplified spontaneous emission free-electron laser. Science 292: 2037-2040
Moore, G.T. 1984. high-gain small-signal modes of the free-electron laser. Opt. Commun. 52: 46-51
Moore, G.T. 1985. The high-gain regime of the free electron laser. Nucl. Instr. Meth. A 239: 19-28
Motz, H. 1951. Applications of the radiation from fast electron beams. J. Appl. Phys. 22: 527-535
Motz, H. 1953. Experiments on radiation by fast electron beams. J. Appl. Phys. 24: 826-833
Murokh, A. et al. 2003. Properties of the ultrashort gain length, self-amplified spontaneous emission free-electron laser in the linear regime and saturation. Phys. Rev. E 67: 066501 (5p)
Murphy, J.B. and C. Pellegrini. 1985a. Generation of high-intensity coherent radiation in the soft-X-ray and vacuum-ultraviolet region. J. Opt. Soc. Amer. B 2: 259-264
Murphy, J.B. and C. Pellegrini. 1985b. Free electron lasers for the XUV spectral region. Nucl. Instr. Meth. A 237: 159-167
Murphy, J.B., C. Pellegrini and R. Bonifacio. 1985c. Collective instability of a free electron laser including space charge and harmonics. Opt. Commun. 53: 197-202
Murphy, J.B. and C. Pellegrini. 1990. Introduction to the physics of the free-electron laser, in : Laser Handbook, edited by W. Colson, C. Pellegrini and A. Renieri, Elsevier, Amsterdam, pp. 163-219
Neal, R.B. (Ed.). 1967. The Stanford Two Mile Accelerator, W.A. Benjamin Inc., New York. The book has been digitized and can be found at http://www.slac.stanford.edu/library/2MileAccelerator/2mile.htm
Nguyen, D.C. et al. 1998. Self-amplified spontaneous emission driven by a high-brightness electron beam. Phys. Rev. Lett. 81: 810-813
Nuhn, H.-D. et al. 2009. LCLS undulator commissioning, alignment, performance. Proc. of the 2009 FEL Conf., Liverpool, pp. 714-721
Orzechowski, T. et al. 1985. Microwave radiation from a high gain free-electron laser amplifier. Phys. Rev. Lett. 54: 889-892
Palmer, R.V. 1972 Interaction of relativistic particles and free electromagnetic waves in the presence of a static helical magnet. J. Appl. Phys. 43: 3014-3023
Palmer, D.T. 1998. The Next Generation Photoinjector, Stanford University Ph.D. thesis, SLAC Report 500
Palmer, D.T. et al. 1997. Emittance studies of the BNL/SLAC/UCLA 1.6 Cell Photocathode RF Gun. Proc. of the 1997 Particle Acc. Conf., Vancouver, pp. 2687-2689
Pantell, R.H., G. Soncini and H.E. Puthoff. 1968. Stimulated photon-electron scattering. IEEE J. Quantum Electron. QE-4: 905-907
Pellegrini, C. 1988. Progress Towards a Soft X-ray FEL. Nucl. Instr. Meth. A 272: 364-367
Pellegrini, C. 1990. SASE and Development of an X-Ray FEL. Proc. of the Workshop Prospects for a 1 Å Free-electron Laser, Sag Harbor, N.Y. Brookhaven National Laboratory Rep. 52273, pp. 3-12
Pellegrini, C. 1992. A 4 to 0.1 nm FEL Based on the SLAC Linac. Proc. Workshop IV Generation Light Sources, edited by M. Cornacchia and H. Winick, SSRL/SLAC Rep. 92/02, pp. 364-375
Pellegrini, C. 2001.The Free-Electron Laser Collective Instability and the Development of X-Ray FELs. Proc. of the 2001 Particle Accelerator Conference, IEEE, Chicago, pp. 295–299
Pellegrini, C. 2011. The Challenge of 4th Generation Light Sources. Proc. of the Int. Part. Acc. Conf., San Sebastian, pp. 3798-3802
Pellegrini, C. and S. Reiche. 2004. The development of X-ray free-electron lasers. IEEE J. Sel. Top. Quantum Electron. 10: 1393-1404
Pellegrini, C. et al. 1993. A 2 to 4 nm High Power FEL on the SLAC Linac. Nucl. Instr. Meth. A 331: 223-227
Pellegrini, C. et al. 1994. The SLAC Soft X-Ray High Power FEL. Nucl. Instr. Meth. A 341: 326-330
Philips, R.M. 1960. The Ubitron, a high-power traveling-wave tube based on a periodic beam interaction in unloaded waveguide. IRE Trans. Electron Devices 7: 231-241
Pierce, J.R. 1962. History of the Microwave-Tube Art. Proc. of the IRE 50, pp. 978-984
Prazeres, R., J.M. Ortega, F. Glotin, D.A. Jaroszynski and O. Marcouillé. 1997. Observation of self-amplified spontataneous emission in a mid-infrared free-electron laser. Phys. Rev. Lett. 78: 2124-2127
Qiu, J., K. Batchelor, I. Ben-Zvi and X.-J. Wang. 1996. Demonstration of emittance compensation through the measurement of the Slice emittance at 10-ps electron Bunch. Phys. Rev. Lett. 76: 3723-3726
Ratner, D. et al. 2009. FEL gain length and taper measurements at LCLS. Proceedings of 2009 FEL Conf., Liverpool, pp. 221-224
Raubenheimer, T.O. 1995. Electron beam acceleration and compression for short wavelength FELs. Nucl. Instr. Meth. A 358: 40-43
Reiche, S. 1999. Genesis 1.3 A Fully 3D Time Dependent FEL Simulation Code. Nucl. Instr. Meth. A 429: 243-248
Reiche, S., P. Musumeci, C. Pellegrini and J. Rosenzweig. 2008. Developments of Ultra-Short Pulse Single Coherent Spike for SASE X-Ray FELs. Nucl. Instr. Meth. A 593: 45-48
Reiche, S., C. Pellegrini, J. Rosenzweig, P. Emma and P. Krejcik. 2002. Start-to-end simulation for the LCLS X-ray FEL. Nucl. Instr. Meth. A 483: 70-74
Robinson, K.W. 1985. Ultra Short Wave Generation. Nucl. Instr. Meth. A 239: 111-118
Roentgen, W.C. 1895. Über eine neue Art von Strahlen. Sitzungsberichtes der Würzburger Physik-medic Gesellschaft
Rosenzweig, J. et al. 2008. Generation of Ultra-short High Brightness Electron Beams for Single Spike SASE FEL Operation. Nucl. Instr. Meth. A 593: 39-44
Rossbach, J. and the TESLA FEL Study Group. 1996. A VUV Free Electron Laser at the TESLA Test Facility at DESY. Nucl. Instr. Meth. A 375: 269-273
Saldin, E.L., E.A. Schneidmiller and M.V. Yurkov. 1998. Statistical Properties of the Radiation from SASE-FEL Operating in the Linear Regime. Nucl. Instr. Meth. A 407: 291-295
Saldin, E.L., E.A. Schneidermiller and M.V. Yurkov. 1999. Numerical simulations of the UCLA/LANL/RRCKI/SLAC experiment on a High Gain SASE FEL. Nucl. Instr. Meth. A 429: 197-201
Saldin, E., E. Schneidmiller and M. Yurkov. 2002. Klystron instability of a relativistic electron beam in a bunch compressor. Nucl. Instr. Meth. A 490: 1-8
Saldin, E., E. Schneidmiller and M. Yurkov. 2003. Longitudinal Space Charge Driven Microbunching Instability in TTF2 linac. Report TESLA-FEL-2003-02 Rep., DESY, pp. 1-13
Scharlemann, E.T., A.M. Sessler and J.S. Wurtele. 1985. Optical guiding in a free-electron laser. Phys. Rev. Lett. 54: 1925-1928
Schmerge, J.F. et al. 1999. Photocathode rf gun emittance measurements using variable length laser pulses. Workshop on Free-Electron Laser Challenges II, Harold E. Bennett; David H. Dowell (Eds.), SPIE Conf. Proc. 3614 : 22-32
Schneider, J.R. 2010. Photon Science at Accelerator-based Light Sources. Rev. Accel. Sci. Tech. 3: 13-37
Seeman, J. et al. 1991a. Summary of Emttance control in the SLC Linac. Proc. of 1991 U.S. Particle Accelerator Conf., pp. 2064-2067
Seeman, J. et al. 1991b. Multibunch energy and spectrum control in the SLC high energy Linac. Proc. of 1991 U.S. Particle Accelerator Conf., pp. 3210-3213
Seibert, M.M. et al. 2011. Single mimivirus particles intercepted and imaged with an X-ray laser. Nature 470: 78-82
Sprangle, P. and R.A. Smith. 1980. Theory of free-electron lasers. Phys. Rev. A 21: 293-301
Sprangle, P., C.M. Tang and C.W. Roberson. 1985. Collective effects in the free electron Laser. Nucl. Instr. Meth. A 239: 1-18
Stupakov, G. 2003. Theory and observations of microbunching instability in electron machines. Proc. of the 2003 Particle Acc. Conf., Portland, Oregon, pp. 102-106
Tanaka, H. et al. 2011. SACLA Project-Status of beam commissioning. Proc. of 2011 FEL Conf., Shanghai
TESLA. 1995. A VUV free electron laser at the TESLA test facility at DESY. Conceptual Design Report, DESY Print, TESLA-FEL 95-03
Travish, G. et al. 1995. Parametric Studies of an X-ray FEL. Nucl. Instr. Meth. A 358: 60-63
Tremaine, A. et al. 1998. Observation of self-amplified spontaneous-emission-induced electron-beam microbunching using coherent transition radiation. Phys. Rev. Lett. 81: 5816-5819
Tremaine, A. et al. 2001. Saturation measurement of a visible SASE FEL. Proc. of the 2001 Particle Accelerator Conf., Chicago, pp. 2760-2762
Tremaine, A. et al. 2002a. experimental characterization of nonlinear harmonic radiation from a visible self-amplified spontaneous emission free-electron laser at saturation. Phys. Rev. Lett. 88: 204801
Tremaine, A. et al. 2002b. Fundamental and harmonic microbunching in a high-gain self-amplified spontaneous-emission free-electron laser. Phys. Rev. E 66: 03650341
Varfolomee, A.A. et al. 1995. Development of focusing undulators on the basis of Side Magnet Arrays. Nucl. Instr. Meth. A 359: 85-88
Varian, R.H. and S.F. Varian. 1939 A High frequency oscillator and amplifier. J. Appl. Phys. 10: 321-327
Vasserman, I. et al. 2004. LCLS undulator design development. Proc. of the 2004 FEL Conf., pp. 367-370
Vinko, S.M. et al. 2011. Creation and diagnosis of a solid-density plasma with an X-ray free-electron laser. Nature 482: 59-62
Walker, R.P. 2008. Considerations for a New Light Source for the UK. Proc. of 2008 FEL Conf., Gyeongju, pp. 160-162
Wang, J.-M. and L.-H. Yu. 1986. A transient analysis of a bunched beam free electron Laser. Nucl. Instr. Meth. A 250: 484-489
Weizsäcker, C.F. 1934. Ausstrahlung bei Stössen sehr schneller Elektronen. Z. Phys. 88: 612-625
Williams, E.J. 1935 Correlation of certain collision problems with radiation theory. Kgl. Danske Videnskab. Selskab Mat.-fys. Medd. 13
Winick, H. et al. 1994. Short wavelength FELs using the SLAC Linac. Nucl. Instr. Meth. A 347: 199-205
Young, L. et al. 2010. Femtosecond electronic response of atoms to ultra-intense X-rays. Nature 466: 46-52
Yu, L.H. 1991. Generation of intense UV radiation by subharmonically seeded single-pass free-electron lasers. Phys. Rev. A 44: 5178-5193
Yu, L.-H., S. Krinsky and R. Gluckstern. 1990. Calculation of Universal Scaling for Free-electron Laser Gain. Phys. Rev. Lett. 64: 3011-3014
Yu, L.-H. et al. 2000a. First lasing of a high-gain harmonic generation free-electron laser experiment. Nucl. Instr. Meth. A 445: 301-306
Yu, L.-H. et al. 2000b. High-Gain Harmonic-Generation Free-electron Laser. Science 289: 932-934
Yu, L.H. et al. 2003. First Ultraviolet High-Gain Harmonic-Generation Free-Electron Laser. Phys. Rev. Lett. 91: 074801(4p)
Zinth, W., A. Laubereau and W. Kaiser. 2011 The long journey to the laser and its rapid development after 1960. Eur. Phys. J. H 36: 153-181
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Rights and permissions
About this article
Cite this article
Pellegrini, C. The history of X-ray free-electron lasers. EPJ H 37, 659–708 (2012). https://doi.org/10.1140/epjh/e2012-20064-5
Received:
Revised:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1140/epjh/e2012-20064-5