Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Does Executive Function Matter for Preschoolers’ Problem Behaviors?

  • Original Paper
  • Published:
Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Early problem behaviors are associated with a variety of cognitive deficits: in verbal ability, executive function (EF) and theory of mind (ToM). Previous studies with different age-groups yield contrasting results: for 2-year-olds, ToM skills appear particularly salient (Hughes & Ensor, 2006), but for 4-year-olds EF appears more important (Hughes, White, Sharpen, & Dunn, 2000). To examine this apparent developmental change in the relative salience of cognitive deficits we followed 122 children from Hughes and Ensor’s (2006) sample at ages 3 and 4. Tests of ToM, EF and verbal ability were included at each time-point and multi-informant, multi-measure, multi-setting ratings provided aggregate measures of problem behaviors. ToM and verbal ability showed non-specific associations with problem behaviors, but associations between EF and problem behaviors were strong and specific. In addition, age-3 EF mediated relations between age-2 verbal ability and age-4 problem behaviors.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Fig. 1
Fig. 2

Similar content being viewed by others

Abbreviations

EF::

Executive function

ToM::

Theory of mind

References

  • Aguilar, B., Sroufe, L. A., Egeland, B., & Carlson, E. (2000). Distinguishing the life-course persistent and adolescent-limited antisocial behaviour types: From birth to 16 years. Development and Psychopathology, 12, 109–132.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Balas, V. (2003). Drôles de plats!. Paris: Nathan.

    Google Scholar 

  • Baron-Cohen, S., Leslie, A., & Frith, U. (1985). Does the autistic child have a “theory of mind”? Cognition, 21, 37–46.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bayley, N. (1993). Bayley scales of infant development (2nd ed.). San Antonio, TX: The Psychological Corporation, Harcourt Brace & Company.

    Google Scholar 

  • Beck, A. T., Ward, C. H., Mendelson, M., Mock, J., & Erbaugh, J. (1961). An inventory for measuring depression. Archives of General Psychiatry, 4, 561–571.

    Google Scholar 

  • Berk, L. (1999). Children’s private speech: An overview of theory and the status of research. In P. Lloyd & C. Fernyhough (Eds.), Lev vygotsky: Critical assessments: Thought and language (vol. II, pp. 33–70). Florence, KY, USA: Taylor & Frances/Routledge.

  • Carlson, S., & Moses, L. (2001). Individual differences in inhibitory control and children’s theory of mind. Child Development, 72, 1032–1053.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Carlson, S., Moses, L., & Breton, C. (2002). How specific is the relation between executive function and theory of mind? Contributions of inhibitory control and working memory. Infant and Child Development, Special Issue on Executive Functions and Development, 11, 73–92.

    Google Scholar 

  • Charman, A., Carroll, F., & Sturge, C. (2001). Theory of mind, executive function and social competence in boys with ADHD. Emotional and Behavioural Difficulties, 6, 31–49.

    Google Scholar 

  • Coldwell, J., Pike, A., & Dunn, J. (2006). Household chaos–links with parenting and child behaviour. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 1116–1122.

  • Conduct Problems Prevention Research Group. (1999). Initial impact of the fast track prevention trial for conduct problems: I. The high-risk sample. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 67, 631–647.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Crnic, K., & Greenberg, M. T. (1990). Minor parenting stresses with young children. Child Development, 61, 1628–1637.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Deater-Deckard, K., Pylas, M., & Petrill, S. (1997). Parent-child interactive system (PARCHISY). London.

  • Dunn, L., Dunn, L., Whetton, C., & Pintillie, D. (1982). British picture vocabulary scale. Windsor, UK: NFER-Nelson.

    Google Scholar 

  • Elliott, C., Murray, D., & Pearson, L. (1983). British abilities scales. Windsor, UK: NFER-Nelson.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fergusson, D., & Horwood, L. (1998). Early conduct problems and later life opportunities. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 39, 1097–1108.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Fergusson, D., & Lynskey, M. (1998). Conduct problems in childhood and psychosocial outcomes in young adulthood: A prospective study. Journal of Emotional and Behavioural Disorders, 6, 2–18.

    Google Scholar 

  • Frith, C., & Frith, U. (2001). The physiological basic of theory of mind: Functional neuroimagining studies. In S. Baron-Cohen, H. Tager-Flusberg & D. J. Cohen (Eds.), Understanding other minds: Perspective from developmental cognitive neuroscience (pp. 334–356). Second Edition. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.

  • Frye, D., Zelazo, P. D., & Palfai, T. (1995). Theory of mind and rule-based reasoning. Cognitive Development, 10, 483–527.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Goodman, R. (1997). The strengths and difficulties questionnaire: A research note. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 38, 581–586.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Goodman, R., Ford, T., Simmons, H., Gatward, R., & Meltzer, H. (2000). Using the strengths and difficulties questionnaire (SDQ) to screen for child psychiatric disorders in a community sample. British Journal of Psychiatry, 177, 534–539.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Gresham, F., & Elliott, S. (1990). Social skills rating system. Circle Pines, MN: American Guidance Service.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gurd, J., & Marshall, J. (2003). Dissociations: Double or quits. Cortex, 39, 192–195.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Happé, F. (1995). The role of age and verbal ability in the theory of mind task performance of subjects with autism. Child Development, 66, 843–855.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Happé, F., & Frith, U. (1996). Theory of mind and social impairment in children with conduct disorder. British Journal of Developmental Psychology, 14, 385–398.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hay, D., Pawlby, S., Sharp, D., Schmuecker, G., Mills, A., Allen, H., et al. (1999). Parents’ judgments about young children’s problems: Why mothers and fathers might disagree yet still predict later outcomes. Journal of Child Psychiatry and Psychology, 40, 1249–1258.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hughes, C. (1998a). Executive function in preschoolers: Links with theory of mind and verbal ability. British Journal of Developmental Psychology, 16, 233–253.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hughes, C. (1998b). Finding your marbles: Does preschoolers’ strategic behaviour predict later understanding of mind? Developmental Psychology, 34, 1326–1339.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hughes, C., & Dunn, J. (1997). “Pretend you didn’t know”: Preschoolers’ talk about mental states in pretend play. Cognitive Development, 12, 477–499.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hughes, C., & Dunn, J. (2000). Hedonism or empathy?: Hard-to-manage children’s moral awareness, and links with cognitive and maternal characteristics. British Journal of Developmental Psychology, 18, 227–245.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hughes, C., Dunn, J., & White, A. (1998). Trick or treat?: Uneven understanding of mind and emotion and executive function among “hard to manage” preschoolers. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 39, 981–994.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hughes, C., & Ensor, R. (2005). Theory of mind and executive function in 2-year-olds: A family affair? Developmental Neuropsychology, 28, 645–668.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hughes, C., & Ensor, R. (2006). Behavioural problems in two-year-olds: Links with individual differences in theory of mind, executive function and negative parenting. Journal of Child Psychology & Psychiatry, 47, 488–497.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hughes, C., & Ensor, R. (submitted-a). Positive and protective: Effects of early theory of mind on preschool problem behaviours.

  • Hughes, C., & Ensor, R. (submitted-b). Theory of mind and executive function: Reciprocal relations from 2 to 4.

  • Hughes, C., White, A., Sharpen, J., & Dunn, J. (2000). Antisocial, angry and unsympathetic: ‘Hard to manage’ preschoolers’ peer problems, and possible social and cognitive influences. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 41, 169–179.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Johnston, C., & Mash, E. J. (1989). A measure of parenting satisfaction and efficacy. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 18, 167–175.

    Google Scholar 

  • Karmiloff-Smith, A. (1992). Beyond modularity: A developmental perspective on cognitive science. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Luria, A. R. (1973). The working brain: An introduction to neuropsychology. New York: Basic Books.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mannuzza, S., Klein, R. G., Bessler, A., Malloy, P., & LaPadula, M. (1993). Adult outcome of hyperactive boys: Educational achievement, occupational rank, and psychiatric status. Archives of General Psychiatry, 50, 565–576.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Mannuzza, S., Klein, R. G., Bonagura, N., Malloy, P., Giampino, T. L., & Addalli, K. A. (1991). Hyperactive boys almost grown up: V. Replication of psychiatric status. Archives of General Psychiatry, 48, 77–83.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • McNeil, C. B., Eyberg, S., Eisenstadt, T. H., Newcomb, K., & Funderburk, B. (1991). Parent-child interaction therapy with behavior problem children: Generalization of treatment effects to the school setting. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 20, 140– 151.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Meltzoff, A. N. (1999). Elements of a developmental theory of imitation. In A. N. Meltzoff & W. Prinz (Eds.), The imitative mind: Development, evolution, and brain bases (pp. 19–41). New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mesman, J., Bongers, I., & Koot, H. (2001). Preschool developmental pathways to preadolescent internalizing and externalizing problems. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 42, 679–689.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Mezzacappa, E. (2004). Alerting, orienting, and executive attention: Developmental properties and sociodemographic correlates in an epidemiological sample of young, urban children. Child Development, 75, 1373–1386.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Moerbeek, K. (1994). Can’t sleep. London: Western Publishing Company.

    Google Scholar 

  • Moffitt, T. (1990). Juvenile delinquency and attention deficit disorder: Boys’ developmental trajectories from age 3 to age 15. Child Development, 61, 893–910.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Moffitt, T. (1993). The neuropsychology of conduct disorder. Development & Psychopathology, 5, 135–152.

    Google Scholar 

  • Moffitt, T., & the E-Risk Study Team. (2002). Contemporary teen aged mothers in Britain. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 43, 727–742.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nelson, J. R., Martella, R. M., Marchand-Martella, N. (2002). Maximizing student learning: The effects of a comprehensive school-based program for preventing problem behaviors. Journal of Emotional & Behavioral Disorders, 10(3), 136–148.

    Google Scholar 

  • Noble, K., Norman, M. F., & Farah, M. (2005). Neurocognitive correlates of socioeconomic status in kindergarten children. Developmental Science, 8, 74–87.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pennington, B., & Bennetto, L. (1993). Main effects or transactions in the neuropsychology of conduct disorder. A commentary on the neuropsychology of conduct disorder. Development and Psychopathology, 5, 153–164.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Perner, J., Kain, W., & Barchfield, P. (2002). Executive control and higher-order theory of mind in children at risk of ADHD. Infant and Child Development, Special Issue on Executive Functions and Development, 11, 141–158.

    Google Scholar 

  • Perner, J., & Lang, B. (1999). Development of theory of mind and executive control. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 3, 337–344.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Peterson, C., & Siegal, M. (1995). Deafness, conversation and theory of mind. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 36, 459–474.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Peterson, C., & Slaughter, V. (2006). Telling the story of ToM: Deaf and hearing children’s narratives and mental state understanding. British Journal of Developmental Psychology, 24, 151–180.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Preacher, K., & Hayes, A. (2004). SPSS and SAS procedures for estimating indirect effects in simple mediation models. Behavior Research Methods, Instruments & Computers, 36, 717–731.

    Google Scholar 

  • Preacher, K., & Hayes, A. (submitted). SPSS and SAS Macros for estimating and comparing indirect effects in multiple mediator models.

  • Preacher, K., & Leonardelli, G. (2001). Calculation for the Sobel Test. An interactive calculation tool for mediation tests. Retrieved Friday 26th March, 2004, from http://www.unc.edu/∼preacher/ sobel/sobel.htm.

  • Robison, L. M., Sclar, D. A., Skaer, T. L., & Galin, R. S. (1999). National trends in the prevalence of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and the prescribing of methylphenidate among school-age children. Clinical Pediatrics, 38, 209–217.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Rogoff, B. (1990). Apprenticeship in thinking. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rutter, M., & Quinton, D. (1984). Parental psychiatric disorder: Effects on children. Psychological Medicine, 14, 853–880.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Saxe, R., Carey, S., & Kanwisher, N. (2004). Understanding other minds: Linking developmental psychology and functional neuroimaging. Annual Review of Psychology, 55, 87–124.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Seguin, J. R., Boulerice, B., Harden, P. W., Tremblay, R. E., & Pihl, R. O. (1999). Executive functions and physical aggression after controlling for attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, general memory and IQ. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 40, 1197–1208.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Shallice, T. (1982). Specific impairments in planning. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London, B298, 199– 209.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Speltz, M., Deklyen, M., Calderon, R., Greenberg, M., & Fisher, P. (1999). Neuropsychological characteristics and test behaviors of boys with early onset conduct problems. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 108, 315–325.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Sutton, J., Smith, P., & Swettenham, J. (1999a). Bullying and “theory of mind’: A critique of the “social skills deficit’ view of anti-social behaviour. Social Development, 8, 117–127.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sutton, J., Smith, P., & Swettenham, J. (1999b). Social cognition and bullying: Social inadequacy or skilled manipulation? British Journal of Developmental Psychology, 17, 435–450.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tager-Flusberg, H. (2001). Language and understanding minds: Connections in autism. In S. Baron-Cohen, H. Tager-Flusberg, & D. J. Cohen (Eds.), Understanding other minds: Perspective from developmental cognitive neuroscience (pp. 334–356). Second Edition. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.

  • Thorndike, R. L., Hagen, E. P., & Sattler, J. M. (1986). Stanford-binet intelligence scales. Chicago, IL: Riverside Publishing Co.

    Google Scholar 

  • Vygotsky, L. (1978). Mind in society: The development of higher psychological processes. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wimmer, H., & Perner, J. (1983). Beliefs about beliefs: representation and constraining function of wrong beliefs in young children’s understanding of deception. Cognition, 13, 103–128.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Winsler, A., Diaz, R. M., McCarthy, E. M., Atencio, D. J., & Chabay, L. A. (1999). Mother-child interaction, private speech, and task performance in preschool children with behaviour problems. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 40, 891–904.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Wood, D. (1998). How children think and learn (2nd ed.). Oxford, UK: Blackwell Publishers Ltd.

    Google Scholar 

  • Yeung, J., Linver, M. R., & Brooks-Gunn, J. (2002). How money matters for young children’s development: Parental investment and family processes. Child Development, 73, 1861–1879.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Zelazo, P., & Frye, D. (1997). Cognitive complexity and control: A theory of the development of deliberate reasoning and intentional action. In M. Stamenov (Ed.), Language structure, discourse, and the access to consciousness. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgements

This research was funded by a grant to the first author from the Health Foundation (543/1808). We thank the families who participated in the Toddlers Up study.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Centre for Family Research, University of Cambridge, Free School Lane, Cambridge, CB2 3RF, UK

    Claire Hughes & Rosie Ensor

Authors
  1. Claire Hughes
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Rosie Ensor
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Claire Hughes.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Hughes, C., Ensor, R. Does Executive Function Matter for Preschoolers’ Problem Behaviors?. J Abnorm Child Psychol 36, 1–14 (2008). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-007-9107-6

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-007-9107-6

Keywords

Search

Navigation