Abstract
Malignant soft tissue tumors represent a diverse group of diagnoses. They are classified into two main groups—rhabdomyosarcomas and non-rhabdomyosarcomas. Non-rhabdomyosarcomas are further differentiated based on their tissue of origin. Most soft tissue tumors present as growing subcutaneous masses, but several have distinct cutaneous findings. In all cases, a biopsy is required to make an accurate diagnosis. Ongoing advances in molecular diagnostics allow for more precise classification and diagnosis. Complete surgical excision, when possible, is the treatment of choice for most soft tissue tumors. Additional treatments and prognosis are tumor dependent and vary by patient age. Herein we provide a unique review of the pediatric soft tissue malignancies with special attention given to their cutaneous manifestations and clinical mimics. Histopathology and imaging characteristics, as well as prognosis, are also discussed. General treatment suggestions are included, but multispecialty care lead by a pediatric oncologist with expertise in this area is necessary to implement a suitable treatment plan.
Keywords
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
References
Williams RF, Fernandez-Pineda I, Gosain A. Pediatric Sarcomas. Surg Clin N Am. 2016;96(5):1107–25.
Thacker MM. Malignant soft tissue tumors in children. Orthopedic Clin North Am. 2013;44(4):657–67.
Gurney JG, Severson RK, Davis S, et al. Incidence of cancer in children in the United States. Sex-, race-, and 1-year age-specific rates by histologic type. Cancer. 1995;75(8):2186–95.
Ognjanovic S, Carozza SE, Chow EJ, et al. Birth characteristics and the risk of childhood rhabdomyosarcoma based on histological subtype. Br J Cancer. 2010;102(1):227–31.
Crucis A, Richer W, Brugières L, et al. Rhabdomyosarcomas in children with neurofibromatosis type I: a national historical cohort. Pediatr Blood Cancer. 2015;62(10):173.
Christman MP, Kerner JK, Cheng C, et al. Rhabdomyosarcoma arising in a giant congenital melanocytic nevus. Pediatr Dermatol. 2014;31(5):584–7.
Malempati S, Hawkins DS. Rhabdomyosarcoma: review of the Children’s oncology group (COG) soft-tissue sarcoma committee experience and rationale for current COG studies. Pediatr Blood Cancer. 2012;59:5–10.
Shern JF, Chen L, Chmielecki J, et al. Comprehensive genomic analysis of rhabdomyosarcoma reveals a landscape of alterations affecting a common genetic axis in fusion-positive and fusion-negative tumors. Cancer Discov. 2014;4(2):216–31.
Ognjanovic S, Linabery AM, Charbonneau B, et al. Trends in childhood rhabdomyosarcoma incidence and survival in the United States, 1975-2005. Cancer. 2009;115(18):4218–26.
Parham DM, Ellison DA. Rhabdomyosarcomas in adults and children: an update. Arch Pathol Lab Med. 2006;130(10):1454–65.
Hettmer S, Archer NM, Somers GR, et al. Anaplastic Rhabdomyosarcoma in TP53 Germline mutation carriers. Cancer. 2014;120:1068–75.
Williamson D, Missiaglia E, de Reynies A, Pierron G, Thuille B, Palenzuela G, et al. Fusion gene-negative alveolar rhabdomyosarcoma is clinically and molecularly indistinguishable from embryonal rhabdomyosarcoma. J Clin Oncol. 2010;28:2151–8.
Cobanoglu B, Kandi B, Okur I. Primary cutaneous rhabdomyosarcoma in an adult. Dermatol Surg. 2009;35:1573.
Marburger TB, Gardner JM, Prieto VG, Billings SD. Primary cutaneous rhabdomyosarcoma: a clinicopathologic review of 11 cases. J Cutan Pathol. 2012;39:987–95.
Miser JS, Pappo AS, Triche TJ, et al. Other soft tissue sarcomas of childhood. In: Pizzo PA, Poplack DG, editors. Principles and practice of pediatric oncology. PA, USA: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins; 2002. p. 1017–50.
Ferrari A, Casanova M. New concepts for the treatment of pediatric nonrhabdomyosarcoma soft tissue sarcomas. Expert Rev Anticancer Ther. 2005;5(2):307. Expanded Academic ASAP. Web. 31 Aug. 2016
Spunt SL, Hill DA, Motosue AM, et al. Clinical features and outcome of initially unresected nonmetastatic pediatric nonrhabdomyosarcoma soft tissue sarcoma. J Clin Oncol. 2002;20:3225–35.
Spunt SL, Poquette CA, Hurt YS, et al. Prognostic factors for children and adolescents with surgically resected nonrhabdomyosarcoma soft tissue sarcoma: an analysis of 121 patients treated at St Jude Children’s research hospital. J Clin Oncol. 1999;17:3697–705.
Pappo AS, Rao BN, Jenkins JJ, et al. Metastatic nonrhabdomyosarcomatous soft tissue sarcomas in children and adolescents: the St. Jude Children’s research hospital experience. Med Pediatr Oncol. 1999;33:76–82.
Yang JC, Chang AE, Baker AR, et al. Randomized prospective study of the benefit of adjuvant radiation therapy in the treatment of soft tissue sarcomas of the extremity. J Clin Oncol. 1998;16(1):197–203.
Bates JE, Peterson CR, Dhakal S, et al. Malignant peripheral nerve sheath tumors (MPNST): a SEER analysis of incidence across the age spectrum and therapeutic interventions in the pediatric population. Pediatr Blood Cancer. 2014;61(11):1955–60.
Waxweiler TV, Proper MS, Rusthoven C, et al. Nonrhabdomyosarcoma soft tissue sarcomas in children: a surveillance, epidemiology, and end results analysis. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys. 2013;87:S71.
Cecchetto G, Carli M, Alaggio R, Dall'Igna P, Bisogno G, Scarzello G, et al. Fibrosarcoma in pediatric patients: results of the Italian cooperative group studies (1979–1995). J Surg Oncol. 2001;78(4):225–31.
Coffin CM. Congenital-infantile Fibrosarcoma: a comparison with adult-type fibrosarcoma. In: Coffin CM, Dehner LP, O'Shea PA, editors. Pediatric soft tissue tumors. A clinical, pathological, and therapeutic approach. Baltimore: Lippincott; 1997. p. 164–70.
Hayward PG, Orgill DP, Mulliken JB, et al. Congenital fibrosarcoma masquerading as lymphatic malformation: report of two cases. J Pediatr Surg. 1995;30(1):84–8.
Yan AC, Chamlin SL, Liang MG, et al. Congenital infantile fibrosarcoma: a masquerader of ulcerated hemangioma. Pediatr Dermatol. 2006;23(4):330–4.
Boon LM, Fishman SJ, Lund DP, et al. Congenital fibrosarcoma masquerading as congenital hemangioma: report of two cases. J Pediatr Surg. 1995;30:1378–81.
Asgari M, Rubin BP, Hornung RL. Neonate with a fibrosarcoma and consumptive coagulopathy. J Am Acad Dermatol. 2004;50:S23–5.
Muzaffar AR, Friedrich JB, Lu KK, et al. Infantile fibrosarcoma of the hand associated with coagulopathy. Plast Reconstr Surg. 2006;117(5):81e–6e.
Bourgeois JM, Knezevich SR, Mathers JA, Sorenson PH. Molecular detection of the ETV6-NTRK3 gene fusion differentiates congenital fibrosarcoma from other childhood spindle cell tumors. Am J Surg Pathol. 2000;24:937–46.
Schofield DE, Fletcher JA, Grier HE, et al. Fibrosarcoma in infants and children: application of new techniques. Am J Surg Pathol. 1994;18(1):14–24.
Kimura C, Kitamura T, Sugihara T. A case of congenital infantile fibrosarcoma of the right hand. J Dermatol. 1998;25:735–41.
Sheng WQ, Hisaoka M, Okamoto S, et al. Congenital infantile fibrosarcoma. A clinicopathologic study of 10 cases and molecular detection of the ETV6-NTRK3 fusion transcripts using paraffin-embedded tissues. Am J Clin Pathol. 2001;115:348–55.
Knezevich SR, Garnett MJ, Pysher TJ, et al. ETV6-NTRK3 gene fusions and trisomy 11 establish a histo-genetic link between mesoblastic nephroma and congenital fibrosarcoma. Cancer Res. 1998;58:5046–8.
Loh ML, Ahn P, Perez-Atayde AR, et al. Treatment of infantile fibrosarcoma with chemotherapy and surgery: results from the Dana-Farber Cancer Institute and Children's hospital. Boston J Pediatr Hematol Oncol. 2002;24(9):722–6.
Orbach D, Rey A, Cecchetto G, et al. Infantile fibrosarcoma: management based on the European experience. J Clin Oncol. 2010;28(2):318–23.
Coffin CM, Jaszcz W, O'Shea PA, et al. So-called congenital-infantile fibrosarcoma: does it exist and what is it? Pediatr Pathol. 1994;14(1):133–50.
Surico G, Muggeo P, Daniele RM, et al. Chemotherapy alone for the treatment of congenital fibrosarcoma: is surgery always needed? Med Pediatr Oncol. 2003;40:268–70.
Madden NP, Spicer RD, Allibone EB, et al. Spontaneous regression of neonatal fibrosarcoma. Br J Cancer. 1992;18:S72–5.
Alaggio R, Ninfo V, Rosolen A, et al. Primitive myxoid mesenchymal tumor of infancy: a clinicopathologic report of 6 cases. Am J Surg Pathol. 2006;30:388–94.
Nagasubramanian R, Wei J, Gordon P, et al. Infantile Fibrosarcoma with NTRK3–ETV6 fusion successfully treated with the Tropomyosin-related kinase inhibitor LOXO-101. Pediatr Blood Cancer. 2016;63(8):1468–70.
Manganoni AM, Pavoni L, Gualdi G, et al. Dermatofibrosarcoma protuberans in an adolescent: a case report and review of the literature. J Pediatr Hematol Oncol. 2013;35(5):383–7.
Hsi ED, Nickoloff BJ. Dermatofibroma and dermatofibrosarcoma protuberans: an immunohistochemical study reveals distinctive antigenic profiles. J Dermatol Sci. 1996;11(1):1–9.
Bouyssou-Gauthier ML, Labrousse F, Longis B, et al. Dermatofibrosarcoma protuberans in childhood. Pediatr Dermatol. 1997;14(6):463–5.
McKee PH, Fletcher CD. Dermatofibrosarcoma protuberans presenting in infancy and childhood. J Cutan Pathol. 1991;18(4):241–6.
Taylor HB, Helwig EB. Dermatofibrosarcoma protuberans. A study of 115 cases. Cancer. 1962;15(4):717–25.
Checketts SR, Hamilton TK, Baughman RD. Congenital and childhood dermatofibrosarcoma protuberans: a case report and review of the literature. J Am Acad Dermatol. 2000;42(5):907–13.
Kesserwan C, Sokolic R, Cowen EW, et al. Multicentric dermatofibrosarcoma protuberans in patients with adenosine deaminase–deficient severe combined immune deficiency. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2012;129(3):762–9.
Lee DW, Yang JH, Won CH, et al. A case of congenital pigmented dermatofibrosarcoma protuberans (Bednar tumor) in a patient with Fanconi anemia. Pediatr Dermatol. 2011;28(5):583–5.
Sack JE, Kuchnir L, Demierre MF. Dermatofibrosarcoma Protuberans arising in the context of Shwachman-diamond syndrome. Pediatr Dermatol. 2011;28(5):568–9.
Smith EH, Lan TT, Jo VY, et al. Dermatofibrosarcoma Protuberans in a patient with Cowden syndrome: revisiting the PTEN and PDGF pathways. Am J Dermatopathol. 2016;38(4):e40–3.
Rubocki RJ, Parsa JR, Hershfield MS, et al. Full hematopoietic engraftment after allogeneic bone marrow transplantation without cytoreduction in a child with severe combined immunodeficiency. Blood. 2001;97:809–11.
Nelson R, Shmalo J, Williams D, Hershfield M. Longterm survival and pegylated adenosine deaminase (ADA) therapy in a patient with ADA deficiency. Clin Immunol. 2006;119(suppl):S138.
Martin L, Combemale P, Dupin M, et al. The atrophic variant of dermatofibrosarcoma protuberans in childhood: a report of six cases. Br J Dermatol. 1998;139:719–25.
Jafarian F, McCuaig C, Kokta V, et al. Dermatofibrosarcoma protuberans in childhood and adolescence: report of eight patients. Pediat Dermatol. 2008;25:317–25.
Pedeutour F, Simon MP, Minoletti F, et al. Translocation, t(17;22)(q22;q13), in dermatofibrosarcoma protuberans: a new tumor-associated chromosome rearrangement. Cytogenet Cell Genet. 1996;3:171–4.
Gooskens SL, Oranje AP, Van Adrichem LN, et al. Imatinib mesylate for children with dermatofibrosarcoma protuberans (DFSP). Pediatr Blood Cancer. 2010;55:369–73.
Keshen TH, Cederna PS, Savell VH Jr, et al. Clinical and pathological features of pediatric dermatofibrosarcoma protuberans. Ann Plast Surg. 1995;35:633–7.
Pappo AS, Rao BN, Cain A, et al. Dermatofibrosarcoma protuberans: the pediatric experience at St. Jude children’s research hospital. Pediatr Hematol Oncol. 1997;14:563–8.
Goldberg DJ, Maso M. Dermatofibrosarcoma protuberans in a 9-year-old child: treatment by MOHS micrographic surgery. Pediatr Dermatol. 1990;7:57–9.
Malerich P, Pride H, Marks V, et al. Congenital dermatofibrosarcomaprotuberans treated with Mohs micrographic surgery. J Am Acad Dermatol. 2007;56:AB157.
Love WE, Keiler SA, Tamburro JE, et al. Surgical management of congenital dermatofibrosarcoma protuberans. J Am Acad Dermatol. 2009;61:1014–23.
Lindner NJ, Scarborough MT, Powell GJ, et al. Revision surgery in dermatofibrosarcoma protuberans of the trunk and extremities. Eur J Surg Oncol. 1999;25:392–7.
Thornton SL, Reid J, Papay FA, Vidimos AT. Childhood dermatofibrosarcoma protuberans: role of preoperative imaging. J Am Acad Dermatol. 2005;53(1):76–83.
Athale UH, Patil PS, Chintu C, et al. Influence of HIV epidemic on the incidence of Kaposi's sarcoma in Zambian children. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr Hum Retrovirol. 1995;8:96–100.
Antman K, Chang Y. Kaposi's sarcoma. N Engl J Med. 2000;342(14):1027–38.
Stefan DC. Patterns of distribution of childhood cancer in Africa. J Trop Pediatr. 2015;61:165–73.
Jackson CC, Dickson MA, Sadjadi M, et al. Kaposi sarcoma of childhood: inborn or acquired immunodeficiency to oncogenic HHV-8. Pediatr Blood Cancer. 2016;63(3):392–7.
Celtik C, Unuvar A, Aydogan A, et al. Human herpes virus type 8-associated Kaposi sarcoma in a pediatric liver transplant recipient. Pediatr Transplant. 2011;15:E100–4.
Abbas AA, Jastaniah WA. Extensive gingival and respiratory tract Kaposi sarcoma in a child after allogenic hematopoietic stem cell transplantation. J Pediatr Hematol Oncol. 2012;34:e53–5.
Sala I, Faraci M, Magnano GM, et al. HHV-8-related visceral Kaposi's sarcoma following allogeneic HSCT: report of a pediatric case and literature review. Pediatr Transplant. 2011;1(15):E8–11.
Sahin G, Palanduz A, Aydogan G, et al. Classic Kaposi sarcoma in 3 unrelated Turkish children born to consanguineous kindreds. Pediatrics. 2010;125(3):e704–8.
Chagaluka G, Stanley C, Banda K, et al. Kaposi's sarcoma in children: an open randomised trial of vincristine, oral etoposide and a combination of vincristine and bleomycin. Eur J Cancer. 2014;50:1472–81.
Ziegler JL, Katongole-Mbidde E. Kaposi's sarcoma in childhood: an analysis of 100 cases from Uganda and relationship to HIV infection. Int J Cancer. 1996;65(2):200–3.
Restrepo CS, MartĂnez S, Lemos JA, et al. Imaging manifestations of Kaposi sarcoma 1. Radiographics. 2006;26(4):1169–85.
Pantanowitz L, Otis CN, Dezube BJ. Immunohistochemistry in Kaposi’s sarcoma. Clin Exp Dermatol. 2010;35:68–72.
Chang Y, Cesarman E, Pessin MS, et al. Identification of herpesvirus-like DNA sequences in AIDS-associated Kaposi's sarcoma. Science. 1994;266:1865–9.
Mesri EA, Cesarman E, Boshoff C. Kaposi's sarcoma and its associated herpesvirus. Nat Rev Cancer. 2010;10:707–19.
Roy D, Sin SH, Lucas A, et al. mTOR inhibitors block Kaposi sarcoma growth by inhibiting essential autocrine growth factors and tumor angiogenesis. Cancer Res. 2013;73(7):2235–46.
Anglemyer A, Agrawal AK, Rutherford GW. Treatment of Kaposi sarcoma in children with HIV-1 infection. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2014;1:CD009826.
Merimsky O, Jiveliouk I, Sagi-Eisenberg R. Targeting mTOR in HIV-negative classic Kaposi's sarcoma. Sarcoma. 2008;2008:825093.
Croteau S, Liang M, Kozakewich H, et al. Kaposiform Hemangioendothelioma: atypical features and risks of Kasabach-Merritt phenomenon in 107 referrals. J Pediatr. 2013;162(1):142–7.
Croteau SE, Gupta D. The clinical spectrumof kaposiform hemangioendothelioma and tufted angioma. Semin Cutan Med Surg. 2016;35(3):147–52.
el Dessouky M, Azmy AF, Raine PA, et al. Kasabach-Merritt syndrome. J Pediatr Surg. 1988;23:109–11.
Drolet B, Trenor C, Brandau L, et al. Consensus-derived practice standards plan for complicated Kaposiform Hemangioendothelioma. J Pediatr. 2013;163(1):285–91.
Adams D, Trenor C, Hammill A, et al. Efficacy and safety of oral sirolimus in the treatment of complicated vascular anomalies. Pediatrics. 2016;137(2):e20153257.
Oza VS, Mamlouk MD, Hess CP, Mathes EF, Frieden IJ. Role of Sirolimus in advanced Kaposiform Hemangioendothelioma. Pediatr Dermatol. 2016;33(2):e88–92.
Louis DN, Ohgaki H, Wiestler OD, Cavenee WK, editors. WHO Classification of Tumours of the Central Nervous System. Lyon: International Agency for Research on Cancer; 2007.
Rodriguez FJ, Folpe AL, Giannini C, et al. Pathology of peripheral nerve sheath tumors: diagnostic overview and update on selected diagnostic problems. Acta Neuropathol. 2012;123(3):295–319.
Enzinger FM, Weiss SW. Malignant tumours of peripheral nerves. In: Enzinger FM, Weiss SW, editors. Soft tissue tumors, vol. 31. St. Louis: CV Mosby Company; 2001. p. 1209–63.
Casanova M, Ferrari A, Spreafico F, et al. Malignant peripheral nerve sheath tumors in children: a single-institution twenty-year experience. J Pediatr Hematol Oncol. 1999;21:509–13.
De Raedt T, Brems H, Wolkenstein P, et al. Elevated risk for MPNST in NF1 microdeletion patients. Am J Hum Genet. 2003;72:1288–92.
Perrone F, Tabano S, Colombo F, et al. p15INK4b, p14ARF and p16INK4a inactivation in sporadic and neurofibromatosis type 1-related malignant peripheral nerve sheath tumours. Clin Cancer Res. 2003;9:4132–8.
Evans DG, Baser ME, McGaughran J, et al. Malignant peripheral nerve sheath tumours in neurofibromatosis 1. J Med Genet. 2002;39:311–4.
Ferner RE, Lucas JD, O’Doherty MJ, et al. Evaluation of 18fluorodeoxyglucose positron emission tomography in the detection of malignant peripheral nerve sheath tumors in neurofibromatosis 1. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 2000;68:353–7.
Anghileri M, Miceli R, Fiore M. Malignant peripheral nerve sheath tumors. Cancer. 2006;107(5):1065–74.
Friedrich RE, Hartmann M, Mautner VF. Malignant peripheral nerve sheath tumors (MPNST) in NF1-affected children. Anticancer Res. 2007;27(4A):1957–60.
McCarville MB. What MRI can tell us about neurogenic tumors and rhabdomyosarcoma. Pediatr Radiol. 2016;46(6):881–90.
Calonje JE, Brenn T, Lazar A, McKee P, editors. McKee’s pathology of the skin. 4th ed. New York: Elsevier; 2011.
Matsumine A, Kusuzaki K, Nakamura T, et al. Differentiation between neurofibromas and malignant peripheral nerve sheath tumors in neurofibromatosis 1 evaluated by MRI. J Cancer Res Clin Oncol. 2009;135:891–900.
Santoro A, Tursz T, Mouridsen H, et al. Doxorubicin versus CY VADIC verses doxorubicin plus ifosfamide in first-line treatment of advanced soft tissue sarcomas: a randomized study of the EORTC soft tissue and bone sarcoma. J Clin Oncol. 1995;13:1537–45.
Serrano C, Simonetti S, Hernandez-Losa J, et al. BRAF V600E and KRAS G12S mutations in peripheral nerve sheath tumors. Histopathology. 2013;62:499–504.
Serrano C, Simonetti S, Hernandez J, et al. BRAF V600E mutations in benign and malignant nerve sheath tumors [abstract]. J Clin Oncol. 2010;28(Suppl 15):Abstract 10043.
Kaplan HG. Vemurafenib treatment of BRAF V600E-mutated malignant peripheral nerve sheath tumor. J Nat Comprehensive Cancer Network. 2013;11(12):1466–70.
Gurney JG, Young JL, Roffers SD, Smith MA, Bunin GR. Soft tissue sarcomas. In: LAG R, Smith MA, Gurney JG, et al., editors. Cancer incidence and survival among children and adolescents: United States SEER program 1975–1995. Bethesda, Md, USA: National Cancer Institute, SEER Program; 1999. p. 111–24.
Stanelle EJ, Christison-Lagay ER, Sidebotham EL, Singer S, Antonescu CR, Meyers PA, La Quaglia MP. Prognostic factors and survival in pediatric and adolescent liposarcoma. Sarcoma. 2012;5:2012.
Beckwith JB, Palmer NF. Histopathology and prognosis of Wilms tumors: results from the first National Wilms’ tumor study. Cancer. 1978;41(5):1937–48.
Tomlinson GE, Breslow NE, Dome J, et al. Rhabdoid tumor of the kidney in the National Wilms’ tumor study: age at diagnosis as a prognostic factor. J Clin Oncol. 2005;23(30):7641–5.
Chi SN, Zimmerman MA, Yao X, et al. Intensive multimodality treatment for children with newly diagnosed CNS atypical teratoid rhabdoid tumor. J Clin Oncol. 2009;27(3):385–9.
Weiss SW, Goldblum J. Malignant soft tissue tumors of uncertain type. In: Weiss SW, Goldblum JR, editors. Enzinger and Weiss's soft tissue tumors. St. Louis: CV Mosby; 2001. p. 1483–571.
Ferrari A, Gronchi A, Casanova M, et al. Synovial sarcoma: a retrospective analysis of 271 patients of all ages treated at a single institution. Cancer. 2004;101(3):627–34.
Raney RB. Synovial sarcoma in young people: background, prognostic factors, and therapeutic questions. J Pediatr Hematol Oncol. 2005;27(4):207–11.
Siegel HJ, Sessions W, Casillas MA, et al. Synovial sarcoma: clinicopathologic features, treatment, and prognosis. Orthopedics. 2007;30(12):1020.
Andrassy RJ, Okcu MF, Despa S, et al. Synovial sarcoma in children: surgical lessons from a single institution and review of the literature. J Am Coll Surg. 2001;192:305–13.
Sessions WM, Siegel HJ, Casillas MA. Pit-falls in the diagnosis and management of synovial sarcoma. In: The Mid-America Ortho-paedic Association Proceedings. 2004. La Quinta, CA.
Brodsky JT, Burt ME, Hajdu SI, et al. Tendosynovial sarcoma: Clinicopathologic features, treatment, and prognosis. Cancer. 1992;70:484–9.
Eilber FC, Dry SM. Diagnosis and management of synovial sarcoma. J Surg Oncol. 2008;97:314–20.
Bakri A, Shinagare AB, Krajewski KM, et al. Synovial sarcoma: imaging features of common and uncommon primary sites, metastatic patterns, and treatment response. Am J Roentgenol. 2012;199(2):W208–15.
Lisle JW, Eary JF, O’Sullivan J, et al. Risk assessment based on FDG-PET imaging in patients with synovial sarcoma. Clin Orthop Relat Res. 2008;467:1605–11.
Singer S, Baldini EH, Demetri GD, Fletcher JA, Corson JM. Synovial sarcoma: prognostic significance of tumor size, margin of resection, and mitotic activity for survival. J Clin Oncol. 1996;14:1201–8.
Recommended Reading
Croteau SE, Liang MG, Kozakewich HP, Alomari AI, Fishman SJ, Mulliken JB, Trenor CC. Kaposiform hemangioendothelioma: atypical features and risks of Kasabach-Merritt phenomenon in 107 referrals. J Pediatr. 2013;162(1):142–7.
Gurney JG, Young JL, Roffers SD, Smith MA, Bunin GR. Soft tissue sarcomas. In: LAG R, Smith MA, Gurney JG, et al., editors. Cancer incidence and survival among children and adolescents: United States SEER program 1975–1995. Bethesda, Md, USA: National Cancer Institute, SEER Program; 1999. p. 111–24.
Ognjanovic S, Carozza SE, Chow EJ, Fox EE, Horel S, McLaughlin CC, et al. Birth characteristics and the risk of childhood rhabdomyosarcoma based on histological subtype. Br J Cancer. 2010;102(1):227–31.
Pappo AS, Rao BN, Cain A, Bodner S, Pratt CB. Dermatofibrosarcoma protuberans: the pediatric experience at St. Jude children’s research hospital. Pediatr Hematol Oncol. 1997;14:563–8.
Rudzinski ER, Anderson JR, Hawkins DS, Skapek SX, Parham DM, Teot LA. The World Health Organization classification of skeletal muscle tumors in pediatric rhabdomyosarcoma: a report from the Children’s oncology group. Arch Pathol Lab Med. 2015;139(10):1281–7.
Shern JF, Chen L, Chmielecki J, Wei JS, Patidar R, Rosenberg M, et al. Comprehensive genomic analysis of rhabdomyosarcoma reveals a landscape of alterations affecting a common genetic axis in fusion-positive and fusion-negative tumors. Cancer Discov. 2014;4(2):216–31.
Spunt SL, Poquette CA, Hurt YS, Cain AM, Rao BN, Merchant TE, et al. Prognostic factors for children and adolescents with surgically resected nonrhabdomyosarcoma soft tissue sarcoma: an analysis of 121 patients treated at St Jude Children’s research hospital. J Clin Oncol. 1999;17:3697–705.
Thacker MM. Malignant soft tissue tumors in children. Orthop Clin N Am. 2013;44(4):657–67.
Williams RF, Fernandez-Pineda I, Gosain A. Pediatric Sarcomas. Surg Clin N Am. 2016;96(5):1107–25.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2018 Springer International Publishing AG
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Boull, C.L., Maguiness, S.M. (2018). Malignant Soft Tissue Tumors in Children. In: Huang, J., Coughlin, C. (eds) Skin Tumors and Reactions to Cancer Therapy in Children. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-66200-8_6
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-66200-8_6
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, Cham
Print ISBN: 978-3-319-66199-5
Online ISBN: 978-3-319-66200-8
eBook Packages: MedicineMedicine (R0)