Abstract
The functional ontogeny of the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axis has particular features: functional development is not completed until puberty; furthermore, its activity is high during fetal and early postnatal life, followed by a functional quiescence of part of the axis during childhood, before full maturation occurs during puberty. In males, basal gonadotropin and androgen levels are useful markers during the first 3–6 months and in puberty, whereas basal AMH and inhibin B can be used as markers during all developmental stages. At puberty, the decline in AMH and the increase in inhibin B reflect Sertoli cell maturation induced by androgens and FSH. Serum inhibin B is an excellent biomarker of spermatogenesis. In females, gonadotropins remain high for the first 2 years of life. AMH is a marker of the ovarian reserve from childhood through adulthood. The rise in serum inhibin B levels during puberty reflects follicle development induced by FSH. Menstrual cycles are irregular and frequently anovulatory in the first 2 years after menarche. AMH barely changes throughout the cycle, whereas inhibin B is higher during the follicular phase and inhibin A during the luteal phase. The adrenal, growth, and thyroid axes show minor or no changes during postnatal development. Adrenal androgen production increases, usually before pubertal onset, in both sexes, whereas IGF-I increases during puberty. Insulin secretion shows a transient rise, in correlation with a period of increased insulin resistance during pubertal development.
Access this chapter
Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout
Purchases are for personal use only
References
Rey RA, Grinspon RP. Normal male sexual differentiation and aetiology of disorders of sex development. Best Pract Res Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2011;25:221–38.
Kuiri-Hänninen T, Sankilampi U, Dunkel L. Activation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axis in infancy, minipuberty. Horm Res Paediatr. 2014;82:73–80.
Debieve F, Beerlandt S, Hubinont C, Thomas K. Gonadotropins, prolactin, inhibin A, inhibin B, and activin A in human fetal serum from midpregnancy and term pregnancy. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2000;85:270–4.
Lasala C, Carré-Eusèbe D, Picard JY, Rey R. Subcellular and molecular mechanisms regulating anti-Mullerian hormone gene expression in mammalian and nonmammalian species. DNA Cell Biol. 2004;23:572–85.
Corbier P, Dehennin L, Castanier M, Mebazaa A, Edwards DA, Roffi J. Sex differences in serum luteinizing hormone and testosterone in the human neonate during the first few hours after birth. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 1990;71:1344–8.
Bergadá I, Milani C, Bedecarrás P, Andreone L, Ropelato MG, Gottlieb S, et al. Time course of the serum gonadotropin surge, inhibins, and anti-Mullerian hormone in normal newborn males during the first month of life. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2006;91:4092–8.
Kuiri-Hanninen T, Seuri R, Tyrvainen E, Turpeinen U, Hamalainen E, Stenman UH, et al. Increased activity of the hypothalamic-pituitary-testicular axis in infancy results in increased androgen action in premature boys. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2011;96:98–105.
Forest MG, Sizonenko PC, Cathiard AM, Bertrand J. Hypophyso-gonadal function in humans during the first year of life. 1. Evidence for testicular activity in early infancy. J Clin Invest. 1974;53:819–28.
Bay K, Andersson AM. Human testicular insulin-like factor 3: in relation to development, reproductive hormones and andrological disorders. Int J Androl. 2011;34:97–109.
Grinspon RP, Bedecarrás P, Ballerini MG, Iñíguez G, Rocha A, Mantovani Rodrigues Resende EA, et al. Early onset of primary hypogonadism revealed by serum anti-Müllerian hormone determination during infancy and childhood in trisomy 21. Int J Androl. 2011;34:e487–98.
Bergadá I, Rojas G, Ropelato MG, Ayuso S, Bergadá C, Campo SM. Sexual dimorphism in circulating monomeric and dimeric inhibins in normal boys and girls from birth to puberty. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf). 1999;51:455–60.
Aksglaede L, Sorensen K, Boas M, Mouritsen A, Hagen CP, Jensen RB, et al. Changes in anti-Mullerian hormone (AMH) throughout the life span: a population-based study of 1027 healthy males from birth (cord blood) to the age of 69 years. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2010;95:5357–64.
Berensztein EB, Sciara MI, Rivarola MA, Belgorosky A. Apoptosis and proliferation of human testicular somatic and germ cells during prepuberty: high rate of testicular growth in newborns mediated by decreased apoptosis. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2002;87:5113–8.
Valeri C, Schteingart HF, Rey RA. The prepubertal testis: biomarkers and functions. Curr Opin Endocrinol Diabetes Obes. 2013;20:224–33.
Bougnères P, François M, Pantalone L, Rodrigue D, Bouvattier C, Demesteere E, et al. Effects of an early postnatal treatment of hypogonadotropic hypogonadism with a continuous subcutaneous infusion of recombinant follicle-stimulating hormone and luteinizing hormone. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2008;93:2202–5.
Rey RA. Mini-puberty and true puberty: differences in testicular function. Ann Endocrinol (Paris). 2014;75:58–63.
Chemes HE, Rey RA, Nistal M, Regadera J, Musse M, Gonzalez-Peramato P, Serrano A. Physiological androgen insensitivity of the fetal, neonatal, and early infantile testis is explained by the ontogeny of the androgen receptor expression in Sertoli cells. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2008;93:4408–12.
Grinspon RP, Andreone L, Bedecarrás P, Ropelato MG, Rey RA, Campo SM, Bergadá I. Male central precocious puberty: serum profile of anti-Mullerian hormone and inhibin B before, during, and after treatment with GnRH analogue. Int J Endocrinol. 2013;2013:823064.
Grinspon RP, Ropelato MG, Bedecarrás P, Loreti N, Ballerini MG, Gottlieb S, et al. Gonadotrophin secretion pattern in anorchid boys from birth to pubertal age: pathophysiological aspects and diagnostic usefulness. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf). 2012;76:698–705.
Dunkel L, Quinton R. Induction of puberty. Eur J Endocrinol. 2014;170:R229–39.
Mouritsen A, Aksglaede L, Soerensen K, Hagen CP, Petersen JH, Main KM, Juul A. The pubertal transition in 179 healthy Danish children: associations between pubarche, adrenarche, gonadarche, and body composition. Eur J Endocrinol. 2013;168:129–36.
Rey RA, Musse M, Venara M, Chemes HE. Ontogeny of the androgen receptor expression in the fetal and postnatal testis: its relevance on Sertoli cell maturation and the onset of adult spermatogenesis. Microsc Res Tech. 2009;72:787–95.
Trigo RV, Bergadá I, Rey R, Ballerini MG, Bedecarrás P, Bergadá C, et al. Altered serum profile of inhibin B, Pro-alphaC and anti-Mullerian hormone in prepubertal and pubertal boys with varicocele. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf). 2004;60:758–64.
Lahlou N, Roger M. Inhibin B in pubertal development and pubertal disorders. Semin Reprod Med. 2004;22:165–75.
Pasqualini T, Chemes H, Rivarola MA. Testicular testosterone levels during puberty in cryptorchidism. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf). 1981;15:545–54.
Bergadá I, Bergadá C, Campo SM. Role of inhibins in childhood and puberty. J Pediatr Endocrinol Metab. 2001;14:343–53.
Kuiri-Hanninen T, Kallio S, Seuri R, Tyrvainen E, Liakka A, Tapanainen J, et al. Postnatal developmental changes in the pituitary-ovarian axis in preterm and term infant girls. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2011;96:3432–9.
Richards JS, Pangas SA. The ovary: basic biology and clinical implications. J Clin Invest. 2010;120:963–72.
Martins da Silva SJ, Bayne RAL, Cambray N, Hartley PS, McNeilly AS, Anderson RA. Expression of activin subunits and receptors in the developing human ovary: activin A promotes germ cell survival and proliferation before primordial follicle formation. Dev Biol. 2004;266:334–45.
Apter D, Butzow TL, Laughlin GA, Yen SS. Gonadotropin-releasing hormone pulse generator activity during pubertal transition in girls: pulsatile and diurnal patterns of circulating gonadotropins. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 1993;76:940–9.
Ropelato MG, Escobar ME, Gottlieb S, Bergadá C. Gonadotropin secretion in prepubertal normal and agonadal children evaluated by ultrasensitive time-resolved immunofluorometric assays. Horm Res. 1997;48:164–72.
Neely EK, Hintz RL, Wilson DM, Lee PA, Gautier T, Argente J, Stene M. Normal ranges for immunochemiluminometric gonadotropin assays. J Pediatr. 1995;127:40–6.
Oerter KE, Uriarte MM, Rose SR, Barnes KM, Cutler Jr GB. Gonadotropin secretory dynamics during puberty in normal girls and boys. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 1990;71:1251–8.
Hagen CP, Aksglaede L, Sorensen K, Mouritsen A, Andersson AM, Petersen JH, et al. Individual serum levels of anti-Mullerian hormone in healthy girls persist through childhood and adolescence: a longitudinal cohort study. Hum Reprod. 2012;27:861–6.
Kelsey TW, Wright P, Nelson SM, Anderson RA, Wallace WH. A validated model of serum anti-Mullerian hormone from conception to menopause. PLoS One. 2011;6, e22024.
Chada M, Prusa R, Bronsky J, Kotaska K, Sidlova K, Pechova M, Lisa L. Inhibin B, follicle stimulating hormone, luteinizing hormone and testosterone during childhood and puberty in males: changes in serum concentrations in relation to age and stage of puberty. Physiol Res. 2003;52:45–51.
Carel JC, Léger J. Precocious puberty. N Engl J Med. 2008;358:2366–77.
American Academy of Pediatrics, Committee on Adolescence, American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists, Committee on Adolescent Health Care, Diaz A, Laufer MR, Breech LL. Menstruation in girls and adolescents: using the menstrual cycle as a vital sign. Pediatrics. 2006;118:2245–50.
Karsch FJ, Dierschke DJ, Knobil E. Sexual differentiation of pituitary function: apparent difference between primates and rodents. Science. 1973;179:484–6.
Adams JM, Taylor AE, Schoenfeld DA, Crowley Jr WF, Hall JE. The midcycle gonadotropin surge in normal women occurs in the face of an unchanging gonadotropin-releasing hormone pulse frequency. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 1994;79:858–64.
Filicori M, Santoro N, Merriam GR, Crowley Jr WF. Characterization of the physiological pattern of episodic gonadotropin secretion throughout the human menstrual cycle. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 1986;62:1136–44.
Dewailly D, Andersen CY, Balen A, Broekmans F, Dilaver N, Fanchin R, et al. The physiology and clinical utility of anti-Mullerian hormone in women. Hum Reprod Update. 2014;20:370–85.
Sehested A, Juul AA, Andersson AM, Petersen JH, Jensen TK, Müller J, Skakkebæk NE. Serum inhibin A and inhibin B in healthy prepubertal, pubertal, and adolescent girls and adult women: relation to age, stage of puberty, menstrual cycle, follicle-stimulating hormone, luteinizing hormone, and estradiol levels. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2000;85:1634–40.
Ballerini MG, Chiesa A, Scaglia P, Gruneiro-Papendieck L, Heinrich JJ, Ropelato MG. 17alpha-hydroxyprogesterone and cortisol serum levels in neonates and young children: influence of age, gestational age, gender and methodological procedures. J Pediatr Endocrinol Metab. 2010;23:121–32.
Knutsson U, Dahlgren J, Marcus C, Rosberg S, Bronnegard M, Stierna P, Albertsson-Wikland K. Circadian cortisol rhythms in healthy boys and girls: relationship with age, growth, body composition, and pubertal development. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 1997;82:536–40.
Auchus RJ. The physiology and biochemistry of adrenarche. Endocr Dev. 2011;20:20–7.
Chard T. Insulin-like growth factors and their binding proteins in normal and abnormal human fetal growth. Growth Regul. 1994;4:91–100.
Wright NM, Northington FJ, Miller JD, Veldhuis JD, Rogol AD. Elevated growth hormone secretory rate in premature infants: deconvolution analysis of pulsatile growth hormone secretion in the neonate. Pediatr Res. 1992;32:286–90.
Giustina A, Veldhuis JD. Pathophysiology of the neuroregulation of growth hormone secretion in experimental animals and the human. Endocr Rev. 1998;19:717–97.
Vigneri R, D’Agata R. Growth hormone release during the first year of life in relation to sleep-wake periods. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 1971;33:561–3.
Tannenbaum GS, Ling N. The interrelationship of growth hormone (GH)-releasing factor and somatostatin in generation of the ultradian rhythm of GH secretion. Endocrinology. 1984;115:1952–7.
Veldhuis JD, Roemmich JN, Rogol AD. Gender and sexual maturation-dependent contrasts in the neuroregulation of growth hormone secretion in prepubertal and late adolescent males and females--a general clinical research center-based study. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2000;85:2385–94.
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Corresponding author
Editor information
Editors and Affiliations
Rights and permissions
Copyright information
© 2016 Springer International Publishing Switzerland
About this chapter
Cite this chapter
Rey, R.A., Campo, S.M., Ropelato, M.G., Bergadá, I. (2016). Hormonal Changes in Childhood and Puberty. In: Kumanov, P., Agarwal, A. (eds) Puberty. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-32122-6_3
Download citation
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-32122-6_3
Published:
Publisher Name: Springer, Cham
Print ISBN: 978-3-319-32120-2
Online ISBN: 978-3-319-32122-6
eBook Packages: MedicineMedicine (R0)