Missionaries: The Rise and Fall of Protestant Temperance in the Balkans

Kamenov, Nikolay

doi:10.1007/978-3-030-41644-7_3

Missionaries: The Rise and Fall of Protestant Temperance in the Balkans

Nikolay Kamenov²

Chapter
First Online: 25 June 2020

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Abstract

The chapter discusses the culture of alcohol consumption in the Balkans. The interest here is to emphasize that during Ottoman times, wine and rakiya were ubiquitous in the region not only among Christian communities but also among Muslims. The chapter then points to the transformations in drinking habits in the second half of the nineteenth century in the newly formed Bulgarian nation. The first dedicated temperance organizations were founded by American missionaries in the region. The chapter shows that although the first wave of temperance activism in Bulgaria up to 1920 was substantially influenced by American evangelicalism, there were still important divergences in the movement’s policy in Bulgaria in comparison to the American temperance.

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Notes

1.
Central State Archive in Sofia, from now on CSA, 1027K, au 1, p. 2 (handwritten, archival pagination incomplete).
2.
Ibid., pp. 2–3 (my italic).
3.
Ibid., p. 4. For more on the motto and its origin see below.
4.
On overindulgence in the Balkans see, for example, Beck, Sam (1984): Changing styles of drinking: Alcohol use in the Balkans. In East European Quarterly 18 (4), pp. 395–413. Among other stereotypes Mark Mazower has tried to address the issue of alcohol in the Balkans, noting that statistics does not seem to support theories of higher crime rates or assaults infused by alcohol: Mazower, Mark (2000): The Balkans. A short history. New York: Modern Library, p. 153.
5.
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6.
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7.
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9.
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10.
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11.
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12.
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15.
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16.
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17.
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18.
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19.
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20.
Evered, Emine Ö.; Evered, Kyle T. (2016): A geopolitics of drinking: Debating the place of alcohol in early republican Turkey. In Political Geography 50, pp. 48–60.
21.
Stoyanov , Zahari (1890 [1884]): Zapiski po Balgarskite vastaniya. 1870–1876. Razkaz na ochevidets. Sofia: Izdatelstvo Ivan Ignatov & Sinove, pp. 101–19, here p. 109.
22.
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23.
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24.
Vazov , Ivan (1956 [1901]) Sabrani sachineniya, vol. 8, Sofia: Bulgarski pisatel, pp. 25–9.
25.
Darzhaven vestnik, 244, 09.11.1901.
26.
Slaveykov , Petko (1870): Gotvarska kniga ili nastavlenіya za vsyakakvy gostby sporeda kakto gy pravyata va Tsarigrada i razny domashni spravy. Tsarigrad: Pechatnitsa na Makedoniya, pp. 141–90, here p. 184.
27.
Samanci, Özge (2015): La cuisine d’Istanbul au XIXe siècle. Rennes: PUR – Presses universitaires de Rennes, p. 290.
28.
Grigor Nachovich (1873) Rakovodstvo za pravene na vino.
29.
Karavelov , Lyuben (1963 [1875]) Maminoto detentse. Sofia: Bulgarski pisatel.
30.
Gavrilova, Bulgarian, p. 149.
31.
Gavrilova, Rayna (1999): Koleloto na zhivota. Vsekidnevieto na bulgarskiya vazrozhdenski grad. Sofia: Universitetsko izdatelstvo “Sv. Kliment Okhridski”, pp. 303–7.
32.
Vankov , Ilya (1900 [1997]): The diary of a Bulgarian Peasant Ilya Vankov for the Year 1900. Commented and edited by Kenji Terajima. Tokyo: Study of Languages and Cultures of Asia and Africa.
33.
Annuaire Statistique du Royaume de Bulgarie. Premiere Annee. (1910). Sofia: Imprimerie de L’etat, pp. 380–1.
34.
Ibid.
35.
Ibid., p. 388.
36.
Vakarelski, Hristo (1977): Etnografya and Bulgaria. Sofia: Nauka i izkustvo, p. 191.
37.
Annuaire (1910), p. 388.
38.
Shkorpil, H.; Shkorpil, K. (1892): Geografiya i statistika na knyazhestvo Balgariya. za dolnite i gornite klassove na gimnaziite i vaobshte za vsichki, koito iskata da se zapoznayuta sa otechesvoto si. Sofia: Izd. i pechat na Hr. G. Danova, pp. 157–8.
39.
Vassilov, T. (1889): Belezhki varhu vatreshnoto sastoyanie na Balgariya preza 1888 god. In Periodichesko spisanie na Balgarskoto knizhovno druzhestvo v Sredets (28–30), pp. 571–585, here p. 572.
40.
Katsarkova, Vera (1999): Proizvodstvoto. In Filip Panaĭotov, Ivanka Nikolova (Eds.): Bulgaria – 20. vek. Almanakh. Sofia: “ABV KOOP 2000”; Trud, pp. 295–333, here p. 295.
41.
Annuaire (1910), p. 191.
42.
Annuaire Statistique du Royaume de Bulgarie. B. Mouvement économique. Agriculture, élevage, du bétail et forêts. (1924). Sofia: Imprimerie de L’etat, pp. 24–5.
43.
The highest number we have for the vintage 1899 yield of 1,928,490 and a lowest figure for the beginning of the First World War, 1914—348,083 hectoliters. Cf. Annuaire (1910), p. 193 and Annuaire (1924), pp. 32–3; Batakliev, Ivan (1939): Viticulture in Bulgaria. In Geography 24 (2), pp. 85–94; on issues of encountered calculating wine and rakiya production and consumption see also Ivanov, Martin (2012): Brutniyat vatreshen produkt na Bulgariya 1870–1945 g. Sofia: Ciela, pp. 131–2, 189.
44.
Best estimates of the GDP in the period conform to these conclusions with an exception in the numbers regarding overall production of must in 1870 and 1880, which is calculated substantially lower than the average of the 1890 and 1900s (with the explicit disclaimer by the author that these numbers could be lower), and in the numbers of rakiya produced immediately following the First World War. Ivanov, Brutniyat, pp. 236–47. Even if we take the low production figure in 1870 at face value, it is offset by the population growth in the following decades.
45.
Herlihy, Patricia (2002): The alcoholic empire. Vodka and politics in late Imperial Russia. Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 70–1.
46.
Vuzdurzhatelno zname, 1:2, pp. 9–10.
47.
Yankov, Angel (2009): Simvolika and rakiyata v svatbenata obrednost. In Angel Goev (Ed.): Erotichnoto v istoriyata. Gabrovo: Feber (1), pp. 97–107; Ganeva, Radoslava (2017): Melnishkoto vino – traditsionna naprava i upotreba. In Spisanie za nauka ‘Novo znanie’ (6-3), pp. 109–120.
48.
Mary Neuburger (2011): The Kruchma, the Kafene, and the Orient Express. Tobacco, Alcohol, and the Gender of Sacred and Secular Restraint in Bulgaria, 1856–1939. In Aspasia 5 (1), pp. 70–91. See also some anthropological and ethno-historical studies Penchev, Vladimir (1997): Kruchmata kato teren. In Bulgarski folklor (1–2), pp. 111–116; Bochkov, Plamen (1997): Mehanata v eposa – muzhkoto i zhenskoto prisastvie. In Bulgarski folklor 1–2, pp. 58–65.
49.
Neuburger, Mary (2012): Balkan smoke. Tobacco and the making of modern Bulgaria. Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, pp. 12–22.
50.
This type reverse mimicry has drawn some academic attention in recent years. See Huhndorf, Shari M. (2001): Going native. Indians in the American cultural imagination. Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press. As a strategy for shortening the distance to the colonized subject see Fischer-Tiné, Harald (2007): Global Civil Society and the Forces of Empire. The Salvation Army, British Imperialism, and the “Prehistory” of NGOs (ca. 1880–1920). In Sebastian Conrad, Dominic Sachsenmaier (Eds.): Competing visions of world order. Global moments and movements, 1880s–1930s. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan (Palgrave Macmillan transnational history series), pp. 29–67.
51.
Popova, Biliyana (2010): Plovdivskite kruchmi, kafeneta i sladkarnitsi prez parvata polovina na XX vek. In Angel Goev (Ed.): Hranata. sakralna i profanna. Gabrovo: Faber (1), pp. 229–253.
52.
Vuzdurzhatelno zname, I:7, pp. 50–2 cf. Vuzdurzhatel, I:10, pp. 3–8.
53.
Shokarova, Bistra (1994): Publichnite domove v Balgariya sled Osvobozhdenieto do voynite. In Bulgarska etnologiya (2), pp. 61–75.
54.
Neuburger, Kruchma.
55.
CSA, 372K, a. 2292.
56.
Popova, Plovdivskite, p. 230.
57.
Conroy-Krutz, Emily (2015): Christian imperialism. Converting the world in the early American republic. Reprint edition. Ithaca: Cornell University Press.
58.
Cox, Jeffrey (2008): The British missionary enterprise since 1700. London: Routledge, p. 13. See also Cox, Jeffrey (2002): Imperial fault lines. Christianity and colonial power in India, 1818–1940. Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press.
59.
For a recent account on missions and the production of difference see, for example, Cleall, Esme (2012): Missionary discourses of difference: Negotiating otherness in the British Empire, 1840–1900, Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.
60.
Porter, Andrew (2004): Religion versus empire? British protestant missionaries and overseas expansion, 1700–1914. Manchester: Manchester University Press, pp. 282–330.
61.
Conroy-Krutz, Christian imperialism.
62.
Tyrrell, Ian R. (2010): Reforming the world. The creation of America’s moral empire. Princeton, N.J., Oxford: Princeton University Press.
63.
See, for example, Genchev, Nikolay (2007): Vuzrozhdenskiyat Plovdiv, Prinos v bulgarskoto duhovno vuzrazhdane. 2nd. Sofia: Iztok Zapad, pp. 289–300.
64.
Porter, Andrew (1997): ‘Cultural imperialism’ and protestant missionary enterprise, 1780–1914. In The Journal of Imperial and Commonwealth History 25 (3), pp. 367–391.
65.
Kulichev, Hristo (2008): Zaslugite na protestantite za bulgarskiya narod. Sofia: Universitetsko izdatelstvo “Sv. Kliment Okhridski”; Kulichev, Hristo (Ed.): Vestiteli na istinata. Istoriya na evangelskite curkvi v Bulgariya. Sofia: Bulgarsko Bibleisko Druzhestvo; Genov, Georgi (2000–2001): The American Contribution to the Renaissance of the Bulgarian National Spirit with Special Regards to the Personality of Elias Riggs. [Американският принос за възраждането на българщината, с особен оглед към личността на Илайъс Ригс]. Sofia: Izdatelstvo Istoricheski Arhiv.
66.
Genov, Rumen; Stoyanov, Luchezar; Cholova, Tsvetana; Lefterov, Zhivko (Eds.) (2007): Yearbook of the History Department of the New Bulgarian University. Sofia: New Bulgarian University; Reeves-Ellington, Barbara (2004): A Vision of Mount Holyoke in the Ottoman Balkans: American Cultural Transfer, Bulgarian Nation-Building and Women’s Educational Reform, 1858–1870. In Gender & History 16 (1), pp. 146–171; Reeves-Ellington, Barbara (2010): Women, Mission, and Nation Building in Ottoman Europe, 1832–1872. In Barbara Reeves-Ellington, Kathryn Kish Sklar, Connie Anne Shemo (Eds.): Competing kingdoms. Women, mission, nation, and the American Protestant empire, 1812–1960. Durham NC: Duke University Press (American encounters/global interactions), pp. 269–292.
67.
Reeves-Ellington, Barbara (2013): Domestic frontiers. Gender, reform, and American interventions in the Ottoman Balkans and the Near East. Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press; Despot, Andrea (2010): Amerikas Weg auf den Balkan. Zur Genese der Beziehungen zwischen den USA und Südosteuropa 1820–1920. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz.
68.
For example Mojzes, Paul Benjamin (1965): A History of the Congregational and Methodist Churches in Bulgaria and Yugoslavia. Dissertation submitted at the Boston University and Bailey, Heather L. (1990): American Protestant Influence in the Balkans, 1918–1939. Dissertation submitted at the University of Illinois Urbana.
69.
Neuburger, Mary (2004): The Orient within. Muslim minorities and the negotiation of nationhood in modern Bulgaria. Ithaca: Cornell University Press; Mazower, Salonica; Genchev, Vuzrozhdenskiyat.
70.
For a classical depiction of the Bulgarian perspective see Zhechev, Toncho (2013 [1975]): Bulgarskiyat Velikden, ili, Strastite bulgarski. 4 izd. Sofia: Izd-vo Iztok-Zapad.
71.
Howsam, Leslie (1991): Cheap Bibles. Nineteenth-Century Publishing and the British and Foreign Bible Society. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 1–34.
72.
Clark, Christopher; Ledger-Lomas, Michael (2012): The Protestant International. In Abigail Green, Vincent Viaene (Eds.): Religious internationals in the modern world. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan (Palgrave Macmillan transnational history series), pp. 23–52, p. 30.
73.
See, for example, Stoynov, Manyo (1964): Nachalo na Protestanskata Propaganda v Bulgaria. In Izvestiia na Instituta za Istoria 14–15, pp. 45–67, particularly pp. 45–6; Genov, Georgi (2000): The American Contribution to the Renaissance of the Bulgarian National Spirit with Special Regards to the Personality of Elias Riggs. [Американският принос за възраждането на българщината, с особен оглед към личността на Илайъс Ригс]. Sofia: Izdatelstvo Istoricheski Arhiv, pp. 18–22; Crampton, R. J. (2007): Bulgaria. Oxford: Oxford University Press, p. 58.
74.
Genov, The American, pp. 34–5.
75.
See, for example, Zornitza ’s anniversary issue of 8 April 1931.
76.
American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions archives at the Houghton Library at Harvard, from now on ABCFM, 17.8, v. 5, 84:2, my emphasis.
77.
ABCFM , 17.8, v. 1, 41:2–3, handwritten.
78.
Clarke, James (1909): Temperance Work in Bulgaria. Its Success. Samokov:: Evangelical School Press.
79.
ABCFM , 17.8, v. 1, 281:4, handwritten.
80.
ABCFM , 17.8, v. 1, 80:1, handwritten.
81.
ABCFM , 17.8, v. 1, 281:6, handwritten.
82.
ABCFM , 17.8, v. 1, 80:4, handwritten.
83.
ABCFM 9.5.1, box 1, folder 24.
84.
Locke Family Papers, MHC, box 4, Letter to Minnie dated April 19th, 1890, handwritten.
85.
ABCFM 9.5.1, box 1, folder 24.
86.
Vuzdurzhatel , 1897, 6:4, pp. 49–50.
87.
CSA 1272K, au 1:2, p. 1.
88.
Locke Family Papers, MHC.
89.
CSA, 1027K, au 1; Clarke 1909, p. 3.
90.
Vuzdurzhatel , 1894, 1:3, pp. 19–20.
91.
See, for example, ABCFM 17.8, v. 5, 16. The ten American missionaries received 16 272 dollars and 31 cents, according to the estimates for the year of 1924. The next twenty pastors, preachers and colporteurs shared 6 208 dollars and 80 cents among themselves. Women on the ABCFM pay roll similarly received, according to the same table, half of the money their husbands would pocket.
92.
ABCFM 17.8, v. 5, 18:1, my emphasis.
93.
Derrida, Jacques (1993): Structure, Sign, and Play in the Discourse of the Human Sciences. In Joseph P. Natoli, Linda Hutcheon (Eds.): A Postmodern reader. Albany: State University of New York Press, pp. 223–272.
94.
CSA, 1027K, au 1, list of member groups.
95.
In her programmatic book (1895): Do everything. A handbook for the world’s white ribboners. Chicago: Miss R.I. Gilbert, Frances Willard, known affectionately as Frank among friends, recalls that the original motto with the words ‘native land’ was recommended by her and adopted by the Illinois branch of the WCTU and later on by the national structures of the union in the United States. The WWCTU adopted in turn ‘every land’, although it seems that the original motto referred to humanity at large. Cf. Willard, Do everything, pp. 20–1; Cherrington, Ernest H. (1925–1930): Standard Encyclopedia of the Alcohol Problem. 6 volumes. Westerville, Ohio: American Issue Publishing Company, p. 2900 and Tyrrell, Ian R. (1991): Woman’s world. The Woman’s Christian Temperance Union in international perspective, 1880–1930. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, p. 45.
96.
Reeves-Ellington, Women, pp. 269–92.
97.
Vuzdurzhatel , 1897, 6:5, p. 66.
98.
The Union Signal, 1906, 32:48, p. 1.
99.
Ibid., p. 2.
100.
The Union Signal, 1911, 37:48, p. 1.
101.
Locke Family Papers, MHC, box 4.
102.
CSA, 1027K, au 1, pp. 24–5 (handwritten, archival pagination incomplete), my emphasis.
103.
Vuzdurzhatel , 1897, 6:2, p. 30.
104.
Although the article in Vuzdurzhatel, 1897, 6:7, p. 99, claimed that the bill was passed into law, it seems that it went only through one round of discussions before the parliament was resolved, cf. Gueshov, Ivan (1899): Words and deeds. Financial and Economic Studies. [Думи и дела. Финансови и Економически Студии]. Sofia: Iv. Govedarov, p. iii.
105.
Bordin, Ruth (1981): Woman and temperance. The quest for power and liberty 1873–1900. Philadelphia: Temple University Press; Tyrell, Woman’s World, pp. 221–41.
106.
Martin, Scott C. (2008): Devil of the domestic sphere. Temperance, gender, and middle-class ideology, 1800–1860. DeKalb: Northern Illinois University Press.
107.
Marilley, Suzanne M. (1993): Frances Willard and the Feminism of Fear. In Feminist Studies 19 (1), p. 139.
108.
Vuydurhatel, 1894, 1:7, p. 52.
109.
Parker, Andrew; Russo, Mary; Sommer, Doris; Yaeger, Patricia (Eds.) (1992): Nationalisms and sexualities. New York: Routledge.
110.
Vuydurhatel, 1894, 1:7, p. 52.
111.
Ghôre/Baire separate spheres are usually translated as ‘home and the world’.
112.
Chatterjee 1989; for a most systematic, classical analysis of the separation of gender roles see Hausen, Karin (1976): Die Polarisierung der “Geschlechtscharaktere”. Eine Spiegelung der Dissoziation von Erwerbs-und Familienleben. In Werner Conze (Ed.): Sozial Geschichte der Familie in Der Neuzeit Europas. Stuttgart: Klett.
113.
For an exciting discussion on the global history of the ‘modern girl’ see Alys Eve Weinbaum, Priti Ramamurthy, Yue Madeleine Dong and Tani E. Barlow (Eds.) (2008): The modern girl around the world. Consumption, modernity, and globalization. Durham: Duke University Press.
114.
Vuydurhatel, 1894, 1:7, p. 53.
115.
Fischer, Gayle V. (1997): “Pantalets” and “Turkish trowsers”: Designing freedom in the mid-nineteenth-century United States. In Feminist Studies 23 (1), pp. 110–40.
116.
Walsh, Margaret (1979): The Democratization of Fashion: The Emergence of the Women’s Dress Pattern Industry. In The Journal of American History 66 (2), pp. 299–313; See also Ross, Ishbel (1963): Crusades and Crinolines. The Life and Times of Ellen Curtis Demorest and William Jennings Demorest. New York: Harper & Row.
117.
Willard , Frances (undated): Dress and Vice. Blessed are the pure in heart for they shall see god. Social Purity Series. Leaflets for Mothers’ Meetings. No. 5. Chicago: Woman’s Temperance Publication Association, p. 4.
118.
Ibid., p. 5.
119.
Ibid., p. 8, my emphasis.
120.
Mattingly, Carol (1998): Well-tempered women. Nineteenth-century temperance rhetoric. Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press, pp. 65–6; Gusfield, Joseph R. (1986): Symbolic crusade. Status politics and the American Temperance Movement. 2nd. Urbana: University of Illinois Press, p. 90.
121.
Vuzdurzhatel , 1897, 6:3, p, 35.
122.
Ibid.
123.
Ibid.
124.
Locke Family Papers, MHC, box 3, folder 4, Undated pamphlet – Vuzdurzhatelna Biblioteka No 17, p. 7.
125.
World League Against Alcoholism (1922): International Convention, The World League Against Alcoholism. Toronto: American Issue Press, p. 44.
126.
CSA 1027K, au 6, 1–5, handwritten.
127.
CSA 1027K, au 6, 25–29, handwritten.

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Kamenov, N. (2020). Missionaries: The Rise and Fall of Protestant Temperance in the Balkans. In: Global Temperance and the Balkans. Palgrave Macmillan, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-41644-7_3

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