Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Current Treatment of Selected Pediatric Sleep Disorders

  • Published:
Neurotherapeutics

Abstract

While pediatric sleep disorders are relatively common, treatments are often not straightforward. There is often a paucity of gold standard studies and data available to guide clinicians, treatments may yield arguably incomplete results, interventions may require chronic use, and/ or involve multiple modalities including behavioral interventions that require high parental and family commitment. This review points out diagnostic differences compared to adults and focuses on current therapy for selected common pediatric sleep disorders including sleep disordered breathing/ obstructive sleep apnea, narcolepsy, and restless legs syndrome. Other common pediatric sleep disorders, such as insomnia and parasomnias, are not covered.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  1. American Academy of Sleep Medicine(2005) International classification of sleep disorders: diagnostic and coding manual (American Academy of Sleep Medicine, Westchester, IL), 2nd ed.

  2. Witmans MB, Keens TG, Davidson Ward SL, Marcus CL. Obstructive hypopneas in children and adolescents: normal values. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2003 Dec 15;168(12):1540.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  3. Katz ES, Marcus CL. Diagnosis of obstructive sleep apnea syndrome in infants and children. In: Sheldon SH, Ferber R, Kryger MH, eds. Principles and Practice of Pediatric Sleep Medicine. Philadelphia, PA: Elsevier Saunders; 2005:197– 210

    Google Scholar 

  4. The AASM Manual for the Scoring of Sleep and Associated Events: Rules, Terminology and Technical Specifications. AASM, 2007.

  5. Gozal D, Serpero LD, Kheirandish-Gozal L, Capdevila OS, Khalyfa A, Tauman R. Sleep measures and morning plasma TNF-alpha levels in children with sleep-disordered breathing. Sleep. 2010 Mar;33(3):319-25.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  6. Gozal D, Capdevila OS, Kheirandish-Gozal L. Metabolic alterations and systemic inflammation in obstructive sleep apnea among nonobese and obese prepubertal children. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2008 May 15;177(10):1142-9.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  7. Gozal D, Kheirandish-Gozal L, Serpero LD, Sans Capdevila O, Dayyat E. Obstructive sleep apnea and endothelial function in school-aged nonobese children: effect of adenotonsillectomy. Circulation. 2007 Nov 13;116(20):2307-14.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  8. Kim J, Bhattacharjee R, Kheirandish-Gozal L, Spruyt K, Gozal D. Circulating microparticles in children with sleep disordered breathing. Chest. 2011 Aug;140(2):408-17.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  9. Gozal D, Kheirandish-Gozal L, Bhattacharjee R, Spruyt K. Neurocognitive and endothelial dysfunction in children with obstructive sleep apnea. Pediatrics. 2010 Nov;126(5):e1161-7.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  10. Chervin RD, Ruzicka DL, Giordani BJ, Weatherly RA, Dillon JE, Hodges EK, Marcus CL, Guire KE. Sleep-disordered breathing, behavior, and cognition in children before and after adenotonsillectomy. Pediatrics. 2006 Apr;117(4):e769-78.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  11. Chervin RD, Ruzicka DL, Hoban TF, Fetterolf JL, Garetz SL, Guire KE, Dillon JE, Felt BT, Hodges EK, Giordani BJ Esophageal Pressures, Polysomnography, and Neurobehavioral Outcomes of Adenotonsillectomy in Children. Chest. 2012 Feb 2.

  12. Cullen KA, Hall MJ, Golosinskiy A. Statistics National Center for Health Statistics. Hyattsville, MD: 2009. Ambulatory Surgery in the United States, 2006.

  13. Marcus CL, Brooks LJ, Draper, KA, et al. Diagnosis and Management of Childhood Obstructive Sleep Apnea Syndrome Pediatrics; published online August 27, 2012.

  14. Tauman R, Gulliver TE, Krishna J, et al. Persistence of obstructive sleep apnea syndrome in children after adenotonsillectomy. J Pediatr. 2006;149:803–8.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  15. Apostolidou MT, Alexopoulos EI, Chaidas K, et al. Obesity and persisting sleep apnea after adenotonsillectomy in Greek children. Chest. 2008;134:1149–55.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  16. Bhattacharjee R, Kheirandish-Gozal L, Spruyt K, Mitchell RB, Promchiarak J, Simakajornboon N, Kaditis AG, Splaingard D, Splaingard M, Brooks LJ, Marcus CL, Sin S, Arens R, Verhulst SL, Gozal D. Adenotonsillectomy outcomes in treatment of obstructive sleep apnea in children: a multicenter retrospective study.Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2010 Sep 1;182(5):676-83.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  17. Mitchell RB, Kelly J. Outcomes and quality of life following adenotonsillectomy for sleep-disordered breathing in children. ORL J Otorhinolaryngol Relat Spec. 2007;69(6):345-8.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  18. Redline S, Amin R, Beebe D, Chervin RD, Garetz SL, Giordani B, Marcus CL, Moore RH, Rosen CL, Arens R, Gozal D, Katz ES, Mitchell RB, Muzumdar H, Taylor HG, Thomas N, Ellenberg S. The Childhood Adenotonsillectomy Trial (CHAT): rationale, design, and challenges of a randomized controlled trial evaluating a standard surgical procedure in a pediatric population. Sleep. 2011 Nov 1;34(11):1509-17.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  19. Mitchell RB, Kelly J. Outcome of adenotonsillectomy for obstructive sleep apnea in obese and normal-weight children. Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg. 2007;137:43–8.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  20. Tauman R, Gulliver TE, Krishna J, Montgomery-Downs HE, O'Brien LM, Ivanenko A, Gozal D. Persistence of obstructive sleep apnea syndrome in children after adenotonsillectomy. J Pediatr. 2006 Dec;149(6):803-8.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  21. Hill CA, Litvak A, Canapari C, Cummings B, Collins C, Keamy DG, Ferris TG, Hartnick CJ. A pilot study to identify pre- and peri-operative risk factors for airway complications following adenotonsillectomy for treatment of severe pediatric OSA. Int J Pediatr Otorhinolaryngol. 2011 Nov;75(11):1385-90.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  22. Amin R, Anthony L, Somers V, Fenchel M, McConnell K, Jefferies J, Willging P, Kalra M, Daniels S. Growth velocity predicts recurrence of sleep-disordered breathing 1 year after adenotonsillectomy. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2008 Mar 15;177(6):654-9.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  23. Giordani B, Hodges EK, Guire KE, Ruzicka DL, Dillon JE, Weatherly RA, Garetz SL, Chervin RD. Changes in neuropsychological and behavioral functioning in children with and without obstructive sleep apnea following Tonsillectomy. J Int Neuropsychol Soc. 2012 Mar;18(2):212-22.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  24. Friedman BC, Hendeles-Amitai A, Kozminsky E, Leiberman A, Friger M, Tarasiuk A, Tal A. Adenotonsillectomy improves neurocognitive function in children with obstructive sleep apnea syndrome. Sleep. 2003 Dec 15;26(8):999-1005.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  25. Gozal D, Pope DW Jr. Snoring during early childhood and academic performance at ages thirteen to fourteen years. Pediatrics. 2001 Jun;107(6):1394-9.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  26. Presented in oral format, ATS, Sunday May 20, 2012 San Francisco CA. Presenters Redline S, Marcus C, Rosen C, Chervin, R.

  27. Marino A, Ranieri R, Chiarotti F, Villa MP, Malagola C. Rapid maxillary expansion in children with Obstructive Sleep Apnoea Syndrome (OSAS). Eur J Paediatr Dent. 2012 Mar;13(1):57-63.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  28. Villa MP, Rizzoli A, Miano S, Malagola C. Efficacy of rapid maxillary expansion in children with obstructive sleep apnea syndrome: 36 months of follow-up. Sleep Breath. 2011 May;15(2):179-84.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  29. Pirelli P, Saponara M, Guilleminault C. Rapid maxillary expansion in children with obstructive sleep apnea syndrome. Sleep. 2004 Jun 15;27(4):761-6.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  30. Guilleminault C, Monteyrol PJ, Huynh NT, Pirelli P, Quo S, Li K. Adeno-tonsillectomy and rapid maxillary distraction in pre-pubertal children, a pilot study. Sleep Breath. 2011 May;15(2):173-7.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  31. Miano S, Rizzoli A, Evangelisti M, Bruni O, Ferri R, Pagani J, Villa MP. NREM sleep instability changes following rapid maxillary expansion in children with obstructive apnea sleep syndrome. Sleep Med. 2009 Apr;10(4):471-8.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  32. Villa MP, Bernkopf E, Pagani J, Broia V, Montesano M, Ronchetti R. Randomized controlled study of an oral jaw-positioning appliance for the treatment of obstructive sleep apnea in children with malocclusion. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2002; 165:123–127.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  33. Villa MP, Miano S, Rizzoli A. Mandibular advancement devices are an alternative and valid treatment for pediatric obstructive sleep apnea syndrome. Sleep Breath. 2011

  34. Goldbart AD, Krishna J, Li RC, Serpero LD, Gozal D. Inflammatory mediators in exhaled breath condensate of children with obstructive sleep apnea syndrome.Chest. 2006 Jul;130(1):143-8.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  35. Goldbart AD, Tal A. Inflammation and sleep disordered breathing in children: a state-of-the-art review. Pediatr Pulmonol. 2008 Dec;43(12):1151-60.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  36. Malakasioti G, Alexopoulos E, Befani C, Tanou K, Varlami V, Ziogas D, Liakos P, Gourgoulianis K, Kaditis AG. Oxidative stress and inflammatory markers in the exhaled breath condensate of children with OSA. Sleep Breath. 2011 Aug 3.

  37. Kim J, Bhattacharjee R, Dayyat E, Snow AB, Kheirandish-Gozal L, Goldman JL, Li RC, Serpero LD, Clair HB, Gozal D. Increased cellular proliferation and inflammatory cytokines in tonsils derived from children with obstructive sleep apnea. Pediatr Res. 2009 Oct;66(4):423-8.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  38. Dayyat E, Serpero LD, Kheirandish-Gozal L, Goldman JL, Snow A, Bhattacharjee R, Gozal D. Leukotriene pathways and in vitro adenotonsillar cell proliferation in children with obstructive sleep apnea. Chest. 2009 May;135(5):1142-9.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  39. Kheirandish-Gozal L, Serpero LD, Dayyat E, Kim J, Goldman JL, Snow A, Bhattacharjee R, Gozal D. Corticosteroids suppress in vitro tonsillar proliferation in children with obstructive sleep apnoea. Eur Respir J. 2009 May;33(5):1077-84.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  40. Brouillette RT, Manoukian JJ, Ducharme FM, Oudjhane K, Earle LG, Ladan S, et al. Efficacy of fluticasone nasal spray for pediatric obstructive sleep apnea.J Pediatr 2001;138(6):838-44.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  41. Alexopoulos EI, Kaditis AG, Kalampouka E, Kostadima E, Angelopoulos NV, Mikraki V, Skenteris N, Gourgoulianis K. Nasal corticosteroids for children with snoring. Pediatr Pulmonol. 2004 Aug;38(2):161-7.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  42. Kheirandish-Gozal L, Gozal D. Intranasal budesonide treatment for children with mild obstructive sleep apnea syndrome. Pediatrics. 2008 Jul;122(1):e149-55.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  43. Goldbart AD, Goldman JL, Veling MC, Gozal D. Leukotriene modifier therapy for mild sleep-disordered breathing in children. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2005 Aug 1;172(3):364-70.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  44. Goldbart AD, Greenberg-Dotan S, Tal A. Montelukast for Children With Obstructive Sleep Apnea: A Double-blind, Placebo-Controlled Study. Pediatrics. 2012 Aug 6, epublished ahead of print.

  45. Wallerstedt SM, Brunlöf G, Sundström A, Eriksson AL. Montelukast and psychiatric disorders in children. Pharmacoepidemiol Drug Saf. 2009 Sep;18(9):858-64.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  46. Kim J, Hakim F, Kheirandish-Gozal L, Gozal D. Inflammatory pathways in children with insufficient or disordered sleep. Respir Physiol Neurobiol. 2011 Sep 30;178(3):465-74.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  47. Kheirandish-Gozal L, Capdevila OS, Tauman R, Gozal D. Plasma C-reactive protein in nonobese children with obstructive sleep apnea before and after adenotonsillectomy. J Clin Sleep Med. 2006 Jul 15;2(3):301-4.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  48. Tauman R, O'Brien LM, Gozal D. Hypoxemia and obesity modulate plasma C-reactive protein and interleukin-6 levels in sleep-disordered breathing. Sleep Breath. 2007 Jun;11(2):77-84

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  49. Kheirandish-Gozal L, Capdevila OS, Tauman R, Gozal D; Plasma C-reactive protein in nonobese children with obstructive sleep apnea before and after adenotonsillectomy, J Clin Sleep Med 2006 23 301-304.

    Google Scholar 

  50. Kelishadi R, Nilforoushan N, Okhovat A, Amra B, Poursafa P, Rogha M. Effects of adenoidectomy on markers of endothelial function and inflammation in normal-weight and overweight prepubescent children with sleep apnea. J Res Med Sci. 2011 Mar;16 Suppl 1:S387-94.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  51. Gozal D, Serpero LD, Sans Capdevila O, Kheirandish-Gozal L. Systemic inflammation in non-obese children with obstructive sleep apnea. Sleep Med. 2008 Mar;9(3):254-9.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  52. Chu L, Yao H, Wang B. Impact of Adenotonsillectomy on High-Sensitivity C-Reactive Protein Levels in Obese Children with Obstructive Sleep Apnea. Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg. 2012 Apr 20.

  53. Marcus CL, Radcliffe J, Konstantinopoulou S, Beck SE, Cornaglia MA, Traylor J, DiFeo N, Karamessinis LR, Gallagher PR, Meltzer LJ. Effects of positive airway pressure therapy on neurobehavioral outcomes in children with obstructive sleep apnea. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2012 May 1;185(9):998-1003.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  54. Marcus CL, Beck SE, Traylor J, Cornaglia MA, Meltzer LJ, DiFeo N, Karamessinis LR, Samuel J, Falvo J, DiMaria M, Gallagher PR, Beris H, Menello MK. Randomized, double-blind clinical trial of two different modes of positive airway pressure therapy on adherence and efficacy in children. J Clin Sleep Med. 2012 Feb 15;8(1):37-42.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  55. Palombini L, Pelayo R, Guilleminault C. Efficacy of automated continuous positive airway pressure in children with sleep-related breathing disorders in an attended setting. Pediatrics. 2004 May;113(5):e412-7.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  56. R. Nisha Aurora, MD; Rochelle S. Zak, MD; Anoop Karippot, MD; Carin I. Lamm, MD; Timothy I. Morgenthaler, MD; Sanford H. Auerbach, MD; Sabin R. Bista, MD; Kenneth R. Casey, MD; Susmita Chowdhuri, MD; David A. Kristo, MD; Kannan Ramar, MD Practice Parameters for the Respiratory Indications for Polysomnography in Children SLEEP. 2011 March 1; 34(3); 379-88

  57. Difeo N, Meltzer LJ, Beck SE, Karamessinis LR, Cornaglia MA, Traylor J, Samuel J, Gallagher PR, Radcliffe J, Beris H, Menello MK, Marcus CL. Predictors of positive airway pressure therapy adherence in children: a prospective study.J Clin Sleep Med. 2012 Jun 15;8(3):279-86.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  58. Sullivan SS, Kushida CA. Multiple sleep latency test and maintenance of wakefulness test. Chest. 2008 Oct;134(4):854-61.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  59. Plazzi G, Pizza F, Palaia V, Franceschini C, Poli F, Moghadam KK, Cortelli P, Nobili L, Bruni O, Dauvilliers Y, Lin L, Edwards MJ, Mignot E, Bhatia KP. Complex movement disorders at disease onset in childhood narcolepsy with cataplexy. Brain. 2011 Dec;134(Pt 12):3480-92.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  60. Aran A, Einen M, Lin L, Plazzi G, Nishino S, Mignot E. Clinical and therapeutic aspects of childhood narcolepsy-cataplexy: a retrospective study of 51 children. Sleep. 2010 Nov;33(11):1457-64.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  61. Sullivan SS. Narcolepsy in adolescents. Adolesc Med State Art Rev. 2010 Dec;21(3):542-55.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  62. Nohynek H, Jokinen J, Partinen M, Vaarala O, Kirjavainen T, Sundman J, Himanen SL, Hublin C, Julkunen I, Olsén P, Saarenpää-Heikkilä O, Kilpi T. AS03 adjuvanted AH1N1 vaccine associated with an abrupt increase in the incidence of childhood narcolepsy in Finland. PLoS One. 2012;7(3):e33536.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  63. Dauvilliers Y, Montplaisir J, Cochen V, Desautels A, Einen M, Lin L, Kawashima M, Bayard S, Monaca C, Tiberge M, Filipini D, Tripathy A, Nguyen BH, Kotagal S, Mignot E. Post-H1N1 narcolepsy-cataplexy. Sleep. 2010 Nov;33(11):1428-30.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  64. Dauvilliers Y, Carlander B, Rivier F, Touchon J, Tafti M. Successful management of cataplexy with intravenous immunoglobulins at narcolepsy onset. Ann Neurol. 2004; 56: 905-908.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  65. Dauvilliers Y . Follow-up of four narcolepsy patients treated with intravenous immunoglobulins. Ann Neurol. 2006; 60: 153.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  66. Fronczek R, Verschuuren J, Lammers G J. Response to intravenous immunoglobulins and placebo in a patient with narcolepsy with cataplexy. J Neurol. 2007; 254: 1607-1608

    Google Scholar 

  67. Plazzi G, Poli F, Franceschini C, et al. Intravenous high-dose immunoglobulin treatment in recent onset childhood narcolepsy with cataplexy. J Neurol. 2008; 255: 1549-1554.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  68. Dauvilliers Y, Abril B, Mas E, Michel F, Tafti M. Normalization of hypocretin-1 in narcolepsy after intravenous immunoglobulin treatment. Neurology. 2009; 73: 1333-1334.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  69. Knudsen S, Biering-Sørensen B, Kornum BR, Petersen ER, Ibsen JD, Gammeltoft S, Mignot E, Jennum PJ. Early IVIg treatment has no effect on post-H1N1 narcolepsy phenotype or hypocretin deficiency. Neurology. 2012 Jul 3;79(1):102-3.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  70. Peterson P C, Husain A M. Pediatric narcolepsy. Brain Dev. 2008; 30: 609-623.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  71. Wise M S, Arand D L, Auger R R, Brooks S N, Watson N F. Treatment of narcolepsy and other hypersomnias of central origin. Sleep. 2007; 30: 1712-1727.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  72. Spiller H A, Borys D, Griffith J R, et al. Toxicity from modafinil ingestion . Clin Toxicol (Phila). 2009; 47: 153-156.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  73. Rugino T. A review of modafi nil fi lm-coated tablets for attention-defi cit/ hyperactivity disorder in children and adolescents. Neuropsychiatr Dis Treat. 2007; 3: 293-301.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  74. Aagaard L, Hansen EH. The occurrence of adverse drug reactions reported for attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) medications in the pediatric population: a qualitative review of empirical studies. Neuropsychiatr Dis Treat. 2011;7:729-44.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  75. Lecendreux M, Bruni O, Franco P, Gringras P, Konofal E, Nevsimalova S, Paiva T, Partinen M, Peeters E, Peraita-Adrados R, Plazzi G, Poli F. Clinical experience suggests that modafinil is an effective and safe treatment for paediatric narcolepsy. J Sleep Res. 2012 Aug;21(4):481-483.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  76. Ivanenko A, Tauman R, Gozal D. Modafi nil in the treatment of excessive daytime sleepiness in children. Sleep Med. 2003; 4: 579-582.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  77. Yeh SB, Schenck CH. Efficacy of modafinil in 10 Taiwanese patients with narcolepsy: findings using the Multiple Sleep Latency Test and Epworth Sleepiness Scale. Kaohsiung J Med Sci. 2010 Aug;26(8):422-7.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  78. Kahbazi M, Ghoreishi A, Rahiminejad F, Mohammadi M R, Kamalipour A, Akhondzadeh S. A randomized, double-blind and placebo-controlled trial of modafi nil in children and adolescents with attention defi cit and hyperactivity disorder. Psychiatry Res. 2009; 168: 234-237.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  79. Biederman J, Pliszka S R. Modafi nil improves symptoms of attentiondeficit/hyperactivity disorder across subtypes in children and adolescents. J Pediatr. 2008; 152: 394-399.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  80. Amiri S, Mohammadi M R, Mohammadi M, Nouroozinejad G H, Kahbazi M, Akhondzadeh S. Modafinil as a treatment for attentiondeficit/hyperactivity disorder in children and adolescents: A double blind, randomized clinical trial. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry. 2008; 32: 145-149.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  81. Wigal S B, Biederman J, Swanson J M, Yang R, Greenhill L L. Efficacy and safety of modafi nil fi lm-coated tablets in children and adolescents with or without prior stimulant treatment for attention-defi cit/hyperactivity disorder: Pooled analysis of 3 randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled studies. Prim Care Companion J Clin Psychiatry. 2006; 8: 352-360.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  82. Goez HR, Scott O, Nevo N, Bennett-Back O, Zelnik N. Using the Test of Variables of Attention to Determine the Effectiveness of Modafinil in Children With Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD): A Prospective Methylphenidate-Controlled Trial. J Child Neurol. 2012 Mar 23.

  83. Black J, Houghton W C. Sodium oxybate improves excessive daytime sleepiness in narcolepsy. Sleep. 2006; 29: 939-946.

    Google Scholar 

  84. Huang Y S, Guilleminault C. Narcolepsy: Action of two gammaaminobutyric acid type B agonists, baclofen and sodium oxybate. Pediatr Neurol. 2009; 41: 9-16.

    Google Scholar 

  85. Lammers G J, Arends J, Declerck A C, Ferrari M D, Schouwink G, Troost J. Gamma-hydroxybutyrate and narcolepsy: A double-blind placebocontrolled study. Sleep. 1993; 16: 216-220.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  86. Lammers G J, Bassetti C, Billiard M, et al. Sodium oxybate is an effective and safe treatment for narcolepsy. Sleep Med. 2010; 11: 105-106: author reply 6–8.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  87. The U. S. Xyrem Multicenter Study Group. Sodium oxybate demonstrates long-term efficacy for the treatment of cataplexy in patients with narcolepsy. Sleep Med. 2004; 5: 119-123.

    Google Scholar 

  88. Lecendreux M, Poli F, Oudiette D, Benazzouz F, Donjacour CE, Franceschini C, Finotti E, Pizza F, Bruni O, Plazzi G. Tolerance and efficacy of sodium oxybate in childhood narcolepsy with cataplexy: a retrospective study. Sleep. 2012 May 1;35(5):709-11.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  89. Mansukhani MP, Kotagal S. Sodium oxybate in the treatment of childhood narcolepsy-cataplexy: A retrospective study. Sleep Med. 2012 Mar 23.

  90. Billiard M. Narcolepsy: current treatment options and future approaches. Neuropsychiatr Dis Treat. 2008 Jun;4(3):557-66.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  91. Mignot E, Nishino S. Emerging therapies in narcolepsy-cataplexy. Sleep. 2005 Jun;28(6):754-63.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  92. Sullivan S and Pelayo R, Narcolepsy in Children, in Therapy in Sleep Medicine; Teri J. Barkoukis, MD, Jean K. Matheson, MD, Richard Ferber, MD and Karl Doghramji, MD, eds; Saunders, 2012.

  93. Picchietti MA, Picchietti DL. Advances in pediatric restless legs syndrome: Iron, genetics, diagnosis and treatment. Sleep Med. 2010 Aug;11(7):643-51.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  94. Allen RP, Picchietti D, Hening WA, Trenkwalder C, Walters AS, Montplaisi J; Restless Legs Syndrome Diagnosis and Epidemiology workshop at the National Institutes of Health; International Restless Legs Syndrome Study Group. Restless legs syndrome: diagnostic criteria, special considerations, and epidemiology. A report from the restless legs syndrome diagnosis and epidemiology workshop at the National Institutes of Health. Sleep Med. 2003 Mar;4(2):101-19.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  95. Montplaisir J, Boucher S, Poirier G, Lavigne, Lapierre O, Lesperance P. Clinical, polysomnographic, and genetic characteristics of restless legs syndrome: a study of 133 patients diagnosed with new standard criteria. Mov Disord. 1997;12:61–5.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  96. Picchietti D, Allen RP, Walters AS, Davidson JE, Myers A, Ferini-Strambi L. Restless legs syndrome: prevalence and impact in children and adolescents--the Peds REST study. Pediatrics. 2007 Aug;120(2):253-66.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  97. Cortese S, Konofal E, Lecendreux M, Arnulf I, Mouren MC, Darra F, Dalla Bernardina B. Restless legs syndrome and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: a review of the literature. Sleep. 2005 Aug 1;28(8):1007-13.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  98. Picchietti DL, Underwood DJ, Farris WA, Walters AS, Shah MM, Dahl RE, Trubnick LJ, Bertocci MA, Wagner M, Hening WA. Further studies on periodic limb movement disorder and restless legs syndrome in children with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder. Mov Disord. 1999 Nov;14(6):1000-7.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  99. Frenette E. Restless legs syndrome in children: a review and update on pharmacological options. Curr Pharm Des. 2011;17(15):1436-42.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  100. Durmer JS, Quraishi GH. Restless legs syndrome, periodic leg movements, and periodic limb movement disorder in children. Pediatr Clin North Am. 2011 Jun;58(3):591-620.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  101. Chesson AL Jr, Anderson WM, Littner M, Davila D, Hartse K, Johnson S, Wise M, Rafecas J. Practice parameters for the nonpharmacologic treatment of chronic insomnia. An American Academy of Sleep Medicine report. Standards of Practice Committee of the American Academy of Sleep Medicine. Sleep. 1999 Dec 15;22(8):1128-33.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  102. C.J. Lettieri, A.H. Eliasson. Pneumatic compression devices are an effective therapy for restless legs syndrome: a prospective, randomized, double-blinded, sham-controlled trial Chest, 135 (1) (2009), pp. 74–80.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  103. Simakajornboon N, Kheirandish-Gozal L, Gozal D. Diagnosis and management of restless legs syndrome in children. Sleep Med Rev. 2009 Apr;13(2):149-56.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  104. Sun ER, Chen CA, Ho G, Earley CJ, Allen RP.Iron and the restless legs syndrome. Sleep. 1998 Jun 15;21(4):371-7.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  105. Trenkwalder C, Hening WA, Montagna P, Oertel WH, Allen RP, Walters AS, Costa J, Stiasny-Kolster K, Sampaio C. Treatment of restless legs syndrome: an evidence-based review and implications for clinical practice. Mov Disord. 2008 Dec 15;23(16):2267-302.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  106. Trenkwalder C, Högl B, Benes H, Kohnen R. Augmentation in restless legs syndrome is associated with low ferritin. Sleep Med. 2008 Jul;9(5):572-4. Epub 2007 Oct 24.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  107. D. Picchietti Is iron deficiency an underlying cause of pediatric restless legs syndrome and of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder? Sleep Med, 8 (7-8) (2007), pp. 693–694

  108. Kotagal S, Silber MH. Childhood-onset restless legs syndrome. Ann Neurol. 2004;56:803–7.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  109. Picchietti D, Steven HE. Early manifestations of restless legs syndrome in childhood and adolescence. Sleep Med. 2008;9:770–81.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  110. Earley CJ. Clinical practice. Restless legs syndrome. N Engl J Med. 2003 May 22;348(21):2103-9.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  111. Kryger MH, Otake K, Foerster J. Low body stores of iron and restless legs syndrome: a correctable cause of insomnia in adolescents and teenagers. Sleep Med. 2002 Mar;3(2):127-32.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  112. Davis BJ, Rajput A, Rajput ML, Aul EA, Eichhorn GR. A randomized, double-blind placebo-controlled trial of iron in restless legs syndrome. Eur Neurol. 2000;43(2):70-5.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  113. Mohri I, Kato-Nishimura K, Kagitani-Shimono K, Kimura-Ohba S, Ozono K, Tachibana N, Taniike M. Evaluation of oral iron treatment in pediatric restless legs syndrome (RLS). Sleep Med. 2012 Apr;13(4):429-32.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  114. Picchietti DL, England SJ, Walters AS, Willis K, Verrico T. Periodic limb movement disorder and restless legs syndrome in children with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder. J Child Neurol. 1998 Dec;13(12):588-94.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  115. L.M. O’Brien, A. Ivanenko, V.M. Crabtree, C.R. Holbrook, J.L. Bruner, C.J. Klaus et al. The effect of stimulants on sleep characteristics in children with attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder Sleep Med, 4 (4) (2003), pp. 309–316.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  116. Walters AS, Mandelbaum DE, Lewin DS, Kugler S, England SJ, Miller M. Dopaminergic therapy in children with restless legs/periodic limb movements in sleep and ADHD. Dopaminergic Therapy Study Group. Pediatr Neurol. 2000 Mar;22(3):182-6.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  117. Muhle H, Neumann A, Lohmann-Hedrich K, Lohnau T, Lu Y, Winkler S, Waltz S, Fischenbeck A, Kramer PL, Klein C, Stephani U. Childhood-onset restless legs syndrome: clinical and genetic features of 22 families. Mov Disord. 2008 Jun 15;23(8):1113-21

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  118. Frauscher B, Gschliesser V, Brandauer E, El-Demerdash E, Kaneider M, Rücker L, Poewe W, Högl B. The severity range of restless legs syndrome (RLS) and augmentation in a prospective patient cohort: association with ferritin levels. Sleep Med. 2009 Jun;10(6):611-5.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  119. Happe S, Sauter C, Klösch G, Saletu B, Zeitlhofer J. Gabapentin versus ropinirole in the treatment of idiopathic restless legs syndrome. Neuropsychobiology. 2003;48(2):82-6.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  120. Garcia-Borreguero D, Larrosa O, de la Llave Y, Verger K, Masramon X, Hernandez G. Treatment of restless legs syndrome with gabapentin: a double-blind, cross-over study. Neurology. 2002 Nov 26;59(10):1573-9.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  121. Lal R, Ellenbogen A, Chen D, Zomorodi K, Atluri H, Luo W, Tovera J, Hurt J, Bonzo D, Lassauzet ML, Vu A, Cundy KC. A randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, dose-response study to assess the pharmacokinetics, efficacy, and safety of gabapentin enacarbil in subjects with restless legs syndrome. Clin Neuropharmacol. 2012 Jul;35(4):165-73.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

Download references

Required Author Forms

Disclosure forms provided by the authors are available with the online version of this article.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Psychiatry, Division of Sleep Medicine, Stanford University School of Medicine, 450 Broadway Street Mail Code 5704, Redwood City, CA, 94063, USA

    Shannon S. Sullivan

Authors
  1. Shannon S. Sullivan
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Shannon S. Sullivan.

Electronic Supplementary Material

Below is the link to the electronic supplementary material.

ESM

(PDF 510 kb)

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Sullivan, S.S. Current Treatment of Selected Pediatric Sleep Disorders. Neurotherapeutics 9, 791–800 (2012). https://doi.org/10.1007/s13311-012-0149-2

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s13311-012-0149-2

Keywords

Search

Navigation