Skip to main content

Advertisement

SpringerLink
Log in

Exposure of neonates to ochratoxin A: first biomonitoring results in human milk (colostrum) from Chile

  • Original Paper
  • Published:
Mycotoxin Research Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

The mycotoxin ochratoxin A (OTA) and its metabolite ochratoxin alpha (OTα) were determined in milk and blood from nine lactating women who provided samples soon after delivery at a hospital in southern Chile. The analytical method applied liquid–liquid extraction with chloroform, and in the case of blood, an extra purification with solid phase extraction prior to HPLC analysis with fluorescence detection. OTA was detected in all human milk samples, with an average concentration of 106 ± 45 ng/L (range 44–184 ng/L). Levels of OTα were 40 ± 30 ng/L (LOQ 40 ng/L), but increased considerably upon enzymatic hydrolysis with ß-glucuronidase/sulfatase (up to 840 ± 256 ng/L) in human milk. By contrast, there was no evidence for conjugates of OTA. The data on OTA in breast milk and levels reported in blood from women in Chile are indicative of an efficient lactational transfer of the mycotoxin. Infant exposure to OTA was estimated by considering their daily OTA intake with human milk at early stages of nursing. For the majority of milk samples, the calculated OTA intake of infants exceeded the tolerable daily intake (TDI) of 5 ng/kg body weight (bw)/day proposed by the Nordic Expert Group, and infant exposure approached the provisional tolerable doses of 14–16 ng/kg bw/day suggested by the Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives (JEFCA) and by EFSA for adults. The present study documents and confirms the presence of OTA in human milk at levels where the TDI can be exceeded. These results point out the need to continue food and biological monitoring and to develop strategies, e.g. dietary recommendations to pregnant and lactating women, aimed to reduce OTA exposure in early periods of life.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Fig. 3

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • American Academy of Pediatrics, Work Group on Breast Feeding (1997) Breast feeding and the use of human milk. Pediatrics 100(6):1035–1039

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Aslam M, Beg AE, Blaszkewicz M, Degen GH, Golka K (2005) Ochratoxin A blood concentration in healthy subjects and bladder cancer cases from Pakistan. Mycotoxin Res 21(3):164–167

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Boudra H, Morgavi DP (2006) Development and validation of a HPLC method for the quantitation of ochratoxins in plasma and raw milk. J Chromatogr B Biomed Appl 843:295–301

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Boudra H, Barmouin J, Dragacci S, Morgavi DP (2007) Aflatoxin M1 and ochratoxin A in raw bulk milk from French dairy herds. J Dairy Sci 90(7):3197–3201

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Breitholtz-Emanuelsson A, Olsen M, Oskarsson A, Palminger I, Hult K (1993a) Ochratoxin A in cow’s milk and in human milk with corresponding human blood samples. J AOAC Int 76(4):842–846

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Breitholtz-Emanuelsson A, Palminger-Hallén I, Wohlin PO, Oskarsson A, Hult K, Olsen M (1993b) Transfer of ochratoxin A from lactating rats to their offspring: a short-term study. Nat Toxins 1(6):347–352

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Burkhalter BR, Marin PS (1991) A demonstration of increased exclusive breastfeeding in Chile. Int J Gynecol Obstet 34:353–359

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Castegnaro M, Canadas D, Vrabcheva T, Petkova-Bocharova T, Chernozemsky IN, Pfohl-Leszkowicz A (2006) Balkan endemic nephropathy: role of ochratoxins A through biomarkers. Mol Nutr Food Res 50:519–529

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Degen GH (2000) Toxikologische Bewertung von Ochratoxin A: Offene Fragen und Forschungsbedarf. Mycotoxin Res 16A:117–122

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Degen GH, Meifort J, Blaszkewicz M (2005) Pilotstudie zum Biomonitoring für Ochratoxin A bei Beschäftigten im Getreide-und Rohkaffee-Umschlag. Mycotoxin Res 21(3):168–171

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Degen GH, Mayer S, Blaszkewicz M (2007) Biomonitoring of ochratoxin A in grain workers. Mycotoxin Res 23(2):88–93

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Dostal A, Jakusova L, Cajdiva J, Hudeckova H (2008) Results of the first studies of occurrence of ochratoxin A in human milk in Slovakia. Bratisl Lek Listy 109(6):276–278

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Doster RC, Sinnhuber RO (1972) Comparative rates of hydrolysis of ochraoxins A and B in vitro. Food Cosmet Toxicol 10:389–394

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • EC (European Commission) (2002a) Commission Regulation No 472/2002 of 12 March 2002 amending Regulation (EC) No 466/2001 setting maximum levels for certain contaminants in foodstuffs, L 75:18–20

  • EC (European Commission) (2002b) Assessment of dietary intake of ochratoxin A by the population of EU Member States. Report of the Scientific Cooperation, Task 3.2.7. Directorate-General Health and Consumer Protection, European Commission. Available at URL: europa.eu.int/comm/food/fs/scoop/3.2.7_en.pdf.

  • EC (European Commission) (2005) Commission Regulation No 126/2005 of 26 January 2005 amending Regulation (EC) No 466/2001 as regarding ochratoxin A, L 25:3–5

  • EFSA (2006) European Food Safety Authority; opinion of the scientific panel on contaminants in the food chain on a request from the commission related to ochratoxin A in food. The EFSA Journal 365:1–56

    Google Scholar 

  • Galvano F, Pietri A, Bertuzzi T, Gagliardi L, Ciotti S, Luisi S, Bognanno M, La Fauci L, Iacopino AM, Nigro F, Li Volti G, Vanella L, Giammanco G, Tina GL, Gazzolo D (2008) Maternal dietary habits and mycotoxin occurrence in human mature milk. Mol Nutr Food Res 52(4):496–501

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Gareis M, Märtlbauer E, Bauer J, Gedek B (1988) Determination of ochratoxin A in human milk. Z Lebensm Unters Forsch 186(2):114–117

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Gürbay A, Girgin G, Atasayar S, Sahin G, Yurdakök M, Yigit S, Tekinalp G (2009) Ochratoxin A: is it present in human breast milk samples obtained mothers from Ankara, Turkey. Toxicol Lett 189(1):S232

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • IARC (1993) Ochratoxin A. Some naturally occurring substances: food items and constituents, heterocyclic aromatic amines and mycotoxins. IARC monograph on the evaluation of carcinogenic risk to humans, Lyon Vol. 56, pp. 489–521

  • Jansen J, de Weerth C, Rksen-Walraven M (2008) Breastfeeding and the mother-infant relationship-a review. Dev Rev 28:503–521

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • JECFA (1996) Forty-fourth meeting of the joint FAO/WHO expert committee on food additives. Toxicological evaluation of certain food additives and contaminants in food: ochratoxin A. WHO Food Addit Ser 35:363–376

    Google Scholar 

  • JECFA (2001) Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives, Ochratoxin A, safety evaluation of certain mycotoxins in food; WHO Food Additives Series 47; FAO Food and Nutrition Paper 74; WHO, p. 281–387. http://www.inchem.org/pages/jecfa.html

  • Kovács F, Sándor G, Ványi A, Domány S, Zomborszky-Kovács M (1995) Detection of ochratoxin a in human blood and colostrum. Acta Vet Hung 43(4):393–400

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Krogh P, Hald B, Pedersen EJ (1973) Occurrence of ochratoxin and citrinin in cereals associated with mycotoxin porcine nephropathy. Acta Pathol Microbiol Scand B 81:689–695

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kuiper-Goodman T (1991) Risk assessment of ochratoxin A residues in food. IARC Sci Publ 115:307–320

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • LaKind JS, Amina Wilkins A, Berlin CM Jr (2004) Environmental chemicals in human milk: a review of levels, infant exposures and health, and guidance for future research. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 198(2):184–208

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Madhyastha MS, Marquardt RR, Fröhlich AA (1992) Hydrolysis of ochratoxin A by the microbial activity of digesta in the gastrointestinal tract. Arch Environ Contam Toxicol 23:468–472

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Micco C, Miraglia M, Brera C, Corneli S, Ambruzzi A (1995) Evaluation of ochratoxin A level in human milk in Italy. Food Addit Contam 12:351–354

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Miraglia M, de Dominicis A, Brera C, Corneli S, Cava E, Menghetti E, Miraglia E (1995) Ochratoxin A levels in human milk and related food samples: an exposure assessment. Nat Toxins 3:436–444

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Muñoz K, Vega M, Rios G, Muñoz S, Madariaga R (2006) Preliminary study of Ochratoxin A in human plasma in agricultural zones of Chile and its relation to food consumption. Food Chem Toxicol 44:1884–1889

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Muñoz K, Vega M, Opazo A (2007) Ochratoxin A in pork meat at the Chilean retail market. 29th Mycotoxin Workshop May 14–16, 2007, Fellbach, Abstract Book, page 103 (P-47)

  • Muñoz K, Blaszkewicz M, Degen HG (2009) Simultaneous analysis of ochratoxin A and its major metabolite ochratoxin alpha in plasma and urine for an advanced biomonitoring of the mycotoxin. J Chromatogr B, Biological Monitoring and Analytical Toxicology in Occupational and Environmental Medicine. (in press)

  • NNT, The Nordic Working Group on Food Toxicology and Risk Evaluation (1991) Health evaluation of ochratoxin A in food products. Nordiske Seminar og Arbejdsrapporter 545. Nordic Council of Ministers, Copenhagen, Denmark

  • Pena A, Seifrtová M, Lino C, Silveira I, Solich P (2006) Estimation of ochratoxin A in portuguese population: new data on the occurrence in human urine by high performance liquid chromatography with fluorescence detection. Food Chem Toxicol 44(9):1449–1454

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Pitout MJ (1969) The hydrolysis of ochratoxin A by some proteolytic enzymes. Biochem Pharmacol 18(2):485–491

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Postupolski J, Karłowski K, Kubik P (2006) Ochratoxin a in maternal and foetal blood and in maternal milk. Rocz Panstw Zakl Hig 57(1):23–30

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ringot D, Chango A, Schneider Y-J, Larondelle Y (2006) Toxicokinetics and toxicodynamics of ochratoxin A, an update. Chem Biol Interact 159:18–46

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • SCF (1998) Scientific Committee on Food Opinion on Ochratoxin A, CS/CNTM/MYC/14 final, Annex II to Document XXIV/2210/98, European Commission, Bruxelles, 17th September 1998. (cited in Galvano et al. 2008)

  • Scott PM (2005) Biomarkers of human exposure to ochratoxin A. Food Addit Contam 1:99–107

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Skaug MA (1999) Analysis of Norwegian milk and infant formulas for ochratoxin A. Food Addit Contam 16(2):75–78

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Skaug MA, Størmer FC, Saugstad OD (1998) Ochratoxin A: a naturally occurring mycotoxin found in human milk samples from Norway. Acta Paediatr 87(12):1275–1278

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Skaug MA, Helland I, Solvoll K, Saugstad OD (2001) Presence of ochratoxin A in human milk in relation to dietary intake. Food Addit Contam 18(4):321–327

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Solomon GM, Weiss PM (2002) Chemical contaminants in breast milk: time trends and regional variability. Environ Health Perspect 100(6):339–347

    Google Scholar 

  • Studer-Rohr I, Schlatter J, Dietrich DR (2000) Kinetic parameters and intraindividual fluctuations of ochratoxin A plasma levels in humans. Arch Toxicol 74:499–510

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Turconi G, Guarcello M, Livieri Ch, Comizolli S, Maccarini L, Castellazzi AM, Pietri A, Piva G, Roggi C (2004) Evaluation of xenobiotics in human milk and ingestion by the newborn. An epidemiological survey in Lombardy (Northern Italy). Eur J Nutr 43:191–197

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Valenta H, Goll M (1996) Determination of ochratoxin A in regional samples of cow’s milk from Germany. Food Addit Contam 13(6):669–676

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Vatinno R, Sresta A, Zambonin CG, Palmisano F (2007) Determination of ochratoxin A in human urine by solid phase microextraction coupled with liquid chromatography-fluorescence detection. J Pharm Biomed Anal 44:1014–1018

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Van Egmond HP, Schothorst RC, Jonker MA (2007) Regulations relating to mycotoxins in food. Anal Bioanal Chem 389:147–157

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Vega M, Muñoz K, Sepúlveda C, Aranda M, Campos V, Villegas R, Villarroel O (2009) Solid-phase extraction and HPLC determination of Ochratoxin A in cereals products on Chilean market. Food Control 20(7):631–634

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Vrabcheva T, Usleber E, Dietrich R, Märtlbauer E (2000) Co-occurrence of ochratoxin A ad citrinin in cereals from Bulgarian villages with a history of balkan endemic nephropathy: a 1 month follow-up study. J Agric Food Chem 48:2483–2488

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • WHO/UNICEF (1990) Innocenti declaration on the protection, promotion and support of breastfeeding, adopted Florence, Italy, 1 August 1990

  • Xiao H, Marquardt RR, Abramson D, Frohlich A (1996) Metabolites of ochratoxin A in rat urine and in a culture of Aspergillus ochraceus. Appl Environ Microbiol 62(2):648–655

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Zimmerli B, Dick R (1995) Determination of ochratoxin A at the ppt level in human blood, serum, milk and some foodstuffs by high-performance liquid chromatography with enhanced fluorescence detection and immunoaffinity column cleanup: methodology and Swiss data. J Chromatogr B Biomed Appl 666(1):85–99

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Zohair A, Salem AB (2006) A study of human exposure to ochratoxin A in a selected population of Egypt. American-Eurasian J Agric & Environ Sci 1(1):19–25

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgements

The authors want to thank the midwives Verónica Moreno V. and Barbara Rubilar R. from the Higueras Hospital in Talcahuano, Chile, and Cecilia Urrutia for their help by collecting samples, and Iris Glaeser, Michael Porta and Gabi Baumhoer (IfADo) for their technical help. Finally, we want to thank DAAD and CONICYT for their support by a stipend to K.M.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Leibniz Research Centre for Working Environment and Human Factors, Ardeystr. 67, 44139, Dortmund, Germany

    Katherine Muñoz, Meinolf Blaszkewicz & Gisela H. Degen

  2. Faculty of Pharmacy, Department of Food Science, University of Concepción, Concepción, Chile

    Victor Campos & Mario Vega

  3. Faculty of Medicine, Department of Paediatrics, University of Concepción, Concepción, Chile

    Alejandro Alvarez & Jorge Neira

Authors
  1. Katherine Muñoz
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Victor Campos
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Meinolf Blaszkewicz
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Mario Vega
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. Alejandro Alvarez
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  6. Jorge Neira
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  7. Gisela H. Degen
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Katherine Muñoz.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Muñoz, K., Campos, V., Blaszkewicz, M. et al. Exposure of neonates to ochratoxin A: first biomonitoring results in human milk (colostrum) from Chile. Mycotox Res 26, 59–67 (2010). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12550-009-0040-0

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Revised:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12550-009-0040-0

Keywords

Search

Navigation