Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Evaluation of Water Quality from Suburban Shallow Wells Under Tropical Conditions According to the Seasonal Variation, Bumbu, Kinshasa, Democratic Republic of the Congo

  • Original Paper
  • Published:
Exposure and Health Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

The contamination of freshwater resources with various organic and inorganic contaminants is still a major problem in many parts of the world, especially in developing countries in which the poor water quality continues to pose a serious threat to human health. In this study, the assessment of groundwater quality was performed in the municipality of Bumbu (Kinshasa, Democratic Republic of the Congo) according to the seasonal variation. Water physicochemical parameters [pH, electrical conductivity (EC), dissolved oxygen and soluble ions (Na+, K+, PO4 3−, SO4 2−, NO3 −, NO2 −)] and faecal indicator bacteria (FIB) including Escherichia coli (E. coli), Enterococcus (ENT) and Total coliforms (TC) were analysed. Except for EC and NO3 −, the results revealed low concentration of other water physicochemical parameters, which are below the recommended limits, according to World Health Organization guideline for drinking water. Additionally, the result showed high concentration of FIB reaching the values of 1.6 × 104, 1.5 × 104 and 9.0 × 105 CFU 100 mL−1 for E. coli, ENT and TC, respectively. The pollution was substantial in wet season compared to dry season. PCR amplification for human-Bacteroides indicated that more than 90 % of bacteria were from human origin. Our results highlight the potential human risk associated with the exposure to water contamination from wells due to the high level of NO3 −, EC, E. coli and ENT in both dry and wet seasons. The approach developed in this study helps provide a better understanding of the physicochemical and microbiological pollution of wells in large cities characterized with lack of wastewater and sanitation facilities.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Fig. 1
Fig. 2

(photos taken by M. Kapembo in June 2015)

Fig. 3
Fig. 4

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Ahmed W, Stewart J, Gardner T, Powell D, Brooks P, Sullivan D, Tindale N (2007) Sourcing faecal pollution: a combination of library-dependent and library-independent methods to identify human faecal pollution in non-sewered catchments. Water Res 41(16):3771–3779. doi:10.1016/j.watres.2007.02.051

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Amanial HR (2015) Assessment of physicochemical quality of spring water in Arbaminch, Ethiopia. J Environ Anal Chem 2:157. doi:10.4172/2380

    Google Scholar 

  • An Y-J, Kampbell DH, Breidenbach GP (2002) Escherichia coli and total coliforms in water and sediments at lake marinas. Environ Pollut 120(3):771–778

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • APHA (2005) Standard methods for the examination of water and wastewater. Washigton, DC

    Google Scholar 

  • Banks D, Karnachuk OV, Parnachev VP, Holden W, Frengstad B (2002) Groundwater contamination from rural pit latrines: examples from Siberia and Kosova. Water Environ J 16(2):147–152

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bernhard AE, Field KG (2000) A PCR assay to discriminate human and ruminant feces on the basis of host differences in Bacteroides-Prevotella genes encoding 16S rRNA. Appl Environ Microbiol 66(10):4571–4574. doi:10.1128/aem.66.10.4571-4574.2000

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Boutin C (1987) L’eau des nappes phréatiques superficielles, une richesse naturelle vitale mais vulnérable. L’exemple des zones rurales du Maroc. Sci Eau 6(3):357–365

    Google Scholar 

  • Bricha S, Ounine K, Oulkheir S, El Haloui N, Attarassi B (2007) Etude de la qualité physicochimique et bactériologique de la nappe phréatique M’nasra (Maroc). Afr Sci 03(3):397

    Google Scholar 

  • Converse RR, Blackwood AD, Kirs M, Griffith JF, Noble RT (2009) Rapid QPCR-based assay for fecal Bacteroides spp. as a tool for assessing fecal contamination in recreational waters. Water Res 43(19):4828–4837. doi:10.1016/j.watres.2009.06.036

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Devarajan N, Laffite A, Graham ND, Meijer M, Prabakar K, Mubedi JI, Elongo V, Mpiana PT, Ibelings BW, Wildi W, Poté J (2015a) Accumulation of clinically relevant antibiotic-resistance genes, bacterial load, and metals in freshwater lake sediments in Central Europe. Environ Sci Technol 49(11):6528–6537. doi:10.1021/acs.est.5b01031

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Devarajan N, Laffite A, Ngelikoto P, Elongo V, Prabakar K, Mubedi J, Piana PM, Wildi W, Poté J (2015b) Hospital and urban effluent waters as a source of accumulation of toxic metals in the sediment receiving system of the Cauvery River, Tiruchirappalli, Tamil Nadu, India. Env Sci Pollut Res 22(17):12941–12950. doi:10.1007/s11356-015-4457-z

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • EIES (Etudes d’impact environnemental et social) (2012) Projet d’alimentation en eau potable de la ville de Kinshasa, vol 74

  • EU (2006) European Directive 2006/7/CE of the European Parliament and of the Council of 15 February 2006 concerning the management of bathing water quality and repealing Directive 76/160/EEC

  • Haile RW, Witte JS, Gold M, Cressey R, McGee C, Millikan RC, Glasser A, Harawa N, Ervin C, Harmon P, Harper J, Dermand J, Alamillo J, Barrett K, Nides M, G-y Wang (1999) The Health effects of swimming in ocean water contaminated by storm drain runoff. Epidemiology 10(4):355–363

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Haller L, Amedegnato E, Pote J, Wildi W (2009) Influence of freshwater sediment characteristics on persistence of fecal indicator bacteria. Water Air Soil Pollut 203:217–227. doi:10.1007/s11270-009-0005-0

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • John DE, Rose JB (2005) Review of factors affecting microbial survival in groundwater. Environ Sci Technol 39(19):7345–7356

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kay D, Jones F, Wyer MD, Fleisher JM, Salmon RL, Godfree AF, Zelenauch-Jacquotte A, Shore R (1994) Predicting likelihood of gastroenteritis from sea bathing: results from randomised exposure. Lancet 344(8927):905–909. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(94)92267-5

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Kelly WR, Panno SV, Hackley KC, Martinsek AT, Krapac IG, Weibel CP, Storment EC (2009) Bacteria contamination of groundwater in a mixed land-use Karst region. Water Qual Expo Health 1(2):69–78

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Mkandawire T (2008) Quality of groundwater from shallow wells of selected villages in Blantyre District, Malawi. Phys Chem Earth Part B 33(8–13):807–811. doi:10.1016/j.pce.2008.06.023

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Montgomery MA, Elimelech M (2007) Water and sanitation in developing countries: including health in the equation. Environ Sci Technol 41(1):17–24. doi:10.1021/es072435t

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Msilimba G, Wanda EMM (2013) Microbial and geochemical quality of shallow well water in high-density areas in Mzuzu City in Malawi. Phys Chem Earth Part B 66:173–180

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mubedi JI, Devarajan N, Le Faucheur S, Mputu JK, Atibu EK, Sivalingam P, Prabakar K, Mpiana PT, Wildi W, Poté J (2013) Effects of untreated hospital effluents on the accumulation of toxic metals in sediments of receiving system under tropical conditions: case of South India and Democratic Republic of Congo. Chemosphere 93(6):1070–1076. doi:10.1016/j.chemosphere.2013.05.080

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Mwanamoki PM, Devarajan N, Thevenon F, Atibu EK, Tshibanda JB, Ngelinkoto P, Mpiana PT, Prabakar K, Mubedi JI, Kabele CG, Wildi W, Pote J (2014) Assessment of pathogenic bacteria in water and sediment from a water reservoir under tropical conditions (Lake Ma Vallée), Kinshasa Democratic Republic of Congo. Environ Monit Assess 186(10):6821–6830. doi:10.1007/s10661-014-3891-6

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Mwanamoki PM, Devarajan N, Niane B, Ngelinkoto P, Thevenon F, Nlandu JW, Mpiana PT, Prabakar K, Mubedi JI, Kabele CG, Wildi W, Poté J (2015) Trace metal distributions in the sediments from river-reservoir systems: case of the Congo River and Lake Ma Vallée, Kinshasa (Democratic Republic of Congo). Environ Sci Pollut Res 22(1):586–597. doi:10.1007/s11356-014-3381-y

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ndembo Longo J (2009) Apport des outils hydrographiques et isotopiques à la gestion de l’aquifère du Mont Amba Thesis. Université d’Avignon, France

    Google Scholar 

  • Ngelinkoto P, Thevenon F, Devarajan N, Birane N, Maliani J, Buluku A, Musibono D, Mubedi JI, Poté J (2014) Trace metal pollution in aquatic sediments and some fish species from the Kwilu-Ngongo River, Democratic Republic of Congo (Bas-Congo). Toxicol Environ Chem 96(1):48–57. doi:10.1080/02772248.2014.910211

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Noble RT, Leecaster MK, McGee CD, Weisberg SB, Ritter K (2004) Comparison of bacterial indicator analysis methods in stormwater-affected coastal waters. Water Res 38(5):1183–1188. doi:10.1016/j.watres.2003.11.038

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Nola M, Nougang ME, Noah Ewoti OV, Moungang LM, Krier F, Chihib N-E (2013) Detection of pathogenic Escherichia coli strains in groundwater in the Yaoundé region (Cameroon, Central Africa). Water Environ J 27(3):328–337. doi:10.1111/j.1747-6593.2012.00349.x

    Google Scholar 

  • Nwachukwu MAM, Feng HH, Amadi MIM, Umunna FUF (2010) The causes and the control of selective pollution of shallow wells by coliform bacteria, Imo River Basin Nigeria. Water Qual Expo Health 2(2):75–84

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Poté J, Haller L, Kottelat R, Sastre V, Arpagaus P, Wildi W (2009) Persistence and growth of faecal culturable bacterial indicators in water column and sediments of Vidy Bay, Lake Geneva, Switzerland. J Environ Sci 21(1):62–69. doi:10.1016/S1001-0742(09)60012-7

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Poumaye N, Mabingui J, Lutgen P, Bigan M (2012) Contribution to the clarification of surface water from the Moringa oleifera: case M’Poko River to Bangui, Central African Republic. Chem Eng Res Des 90:2346–2352. doi:10.1016/j.cherd.2012.05.017

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Pritchard M, Mkandawire T, O’Neill JG (2008) Assessment of groundwater quality in shallow wells within the southern districts of Malawi. Phys Chem Earth Part B 33:812–823. doi:10.1016/j.pce.2008.06.036

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • R Core Team (2015) R: a language and environment for statistical computing. R Foundation for Statistical Computing, Vienne

    Google Scholar 

  • Rochelle-Newall E, Nguyen TMH, Le TPQ, Sengtaheuanghoung O, Ribolzi O (2015) A short review of fecal indicator bacteria in tropical aquatic ecosystems: knowledge gaps and future directions. Front Microbiol 6:308. doi:10.3389/fmicb.2015.00308

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Scott TM, Jenkins TM, Lukasik J, Rose JB (2005) Potential use of a host associated molecular marker in enterococcus faecium as an index of human fecal pollution. Environ Sci Technol 39(1):283–287. doi:10.1021/es035267n

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Tallar RY, Suen J-P (2015) Identification of waterbody status in Indonesia by using predictive index assessment tool. Int Soil Water Conserv Res 3(3):224–238

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Thevenon F, Regier N, Benagli C, Tonolla M, Adatte T, Wildi W, Poté J (2012) Characterization of fecal indicator bacteria in sediments cores from the largest freshwater lake of Western Europe (Lake Geneva, Switzerland). Ecotox Environ Saf 78:50–56. doi:10.1016/j.ecoenv.2011.11.005

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Tshibanda JB, Devarajan N, Birane N, Mwanamoki PM, Atibu EK, Mpiana PT, Prabakar K, Mubedi Ilunga J, Wildi W, Poté J (2014) Microbiological and physicochemical characterization of water and sediment of an urban river: N’Djili River, Kinshasa, Democratic Republic of the Congo. Sustain Water Qual Ecol 3–4:47–54. doi:10.1016/j.swaqe.2014.07.001

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • UNEP (2011) Emerging issues in our global environment: post-conflict environmental assessment in democratic Republic of the Congo. Synthesis for policy makers (United Nations Environment Programme)

  • US EPA (1984) Health effects criteria for fresh recreational waters. Environmental Protection Agency, U.S

    Google Scholar 

  • US EPA (2000) Improved enumeration methods for the recreational water quality indicators: enterococci and Escherichia coli EPA-821/R-97/004 (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency). Washington, DC

  • WHO (World Health Organisation) (2004) Guidelines for drinking-water quality, recommendations Geneva

  • WHO (World Health Organisation) (2011) Guidelines for drinking-water quality

Download references

Acknowledgments

We are grateful to the financial sources: the Swiss National Science Foundation (Grant No. 31003A_150163/1) and Swiss embassy in DRC via M. Christian Gobet. This result presents the collaboration between the University of Geneva (Institute F. A. Forel), University of Kinshasa and Pedagogic National University of Congo (Democratic Republic of Congo).

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, University of Kinshasa, B.P. 190, Kinshasa XI, Democratic Republic of the Congo

    Michel L. Kapembo, Mathieu K. Bokolo, Aimé L. Mbanga, Marc M. Maya-Vangua, Crispin K. Mulaji, Pius T. Mpiana & John Poté

  2. Faculty of Sciences, Earth and Environmental Sciences, Institute F. A. Forel and Institute of Environmental Sciences, University of Geneva, Bd Carl-Vogt 66, 1211, Geneva 4, Switzerland

    Amandine Laffite, Walter Wildi & John Poté

  3. Université Pédagogique Nationale (UPN), Croisement Route de Matadi et Avenue de la Libération. Quartier Binza/UPN, B.P. 8815, Kinshasa, Democratic Republic of the Congo

    Jean-Paul Otamonga & John Poté

Authors
  1. Michel L. Kapembo
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Amandine Laffite
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Mathieu K. Bokolo
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Aimé L. Mbanga
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. Marc M. Maya-Vangua
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  6. Jean-Paul Otamonga
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  7. Crispin K. Mulaji
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  8. Pius T. Mpiana
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  9. Walter Wildi
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  10. John Poté
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to John Poté.

Ethics declarations

Conflict of interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Ethical Standards

We confirm that the field studies and sampling did not involve misunderstanding. The funder had no role in study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish or preparation of the manuscript.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Check for updates. Verify currency and authenticity via CrossMark

Cite this article

Kapembo, M.L., Laffite, A., Bokolo, M.K. et al. Evaluation of Water Quality from Suburban Shallow Wells Under Tropical Conditions According to the Seasonal Variation, Bumbu, Kinshasa, Democratic Republic of the Congo. Expo Health 8, 487–496 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12403-016-0213-y

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Revised:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12403-016-0213-y

Keywords

Search

Navigation