Skip to main content

Advertisement

SpringerLink
Log in

Toxicological Status of Children with Autism vs. Neurotypical Children and the Association with Autism Severity

  • Published:
Biological Trace Element Research Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

This study investigates both the level of toxic metals in children with autism and the possible association of those toxic metals with autism severity. This study involved 55 children with autism ages 5–16 years compared to 44 controls with similar age and gender. The study included measurements of toxic metals in whole blood, red blood cells (RBC), and urine. The autism group had higher levels of lead in RBC (+41 %, p = 0.002) and higher urinary levels of lead (+74 %, p = 0.02), thallium (+77 %, p = 0.0001), tin (+115 %, p = 0.01), and tungsten (+44 %, p = 0.00005). However, the autism group had slightly lower levels of cadmium in whole blood (−19 %, p = 0.003). A stepwise, multiple linear regression analysis found a strong association of levels of toxic metals with variation in the degree of severity of autism for all the severity scales (adjusted R 2 of 0.38–0.47, p < 0.0003). Cadmium (whole blood) and mercury (whole blood and RBC) were the most consistently significant variables. Overall, children with autism have higher average levels of several toxic metals, and levels of several toxic metals are strongly associated with variations in the severity of autism for all three of the autism severity scales investigated.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  1. James SJ, Cutler P, Melnyk S, Jernigan S, Janak L, Gaylor DW, Neubrander JA (2004) Metabolic biomarkers of increased oxidative stress and impaired methylation capacity in children with autism. Am J Clin Nutr 80(6):1611–1617

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  2. James SJ, Melnyk S, Jernigan S, Cleves MA, Halsted CH, Wong DH, Cutler P, Bock K, Boris M, Bradstreet JJ, Baker SM, Gaylor DW (2006) Metabolic endophenotype and related genotypes are associated with oxidative stress in children with autism. Am J Med Genet B Neuropsychiatr Genet 141:947–956

    Google Scholar 

  3. James SJ, Melnyk S, Fuchs G, Reid T, Jernigan S, Pavliv O, Hubanks A, Gaylor DW (2009) Efficacy of methylcobalamin and folinic acid treatment on glutathione redox status in children with autism. Am J Clin Nutr 89((1):425–430, Epub 2008 Dec 3

    Google Scholar 

  4. Adams JB, Audhya T, Mcdonough-Means S, Rubin RA, Quig D, Geis E, Gehn E, Loresto M, Mitchell J, Atwood S, Barnhouse S, Lee W (2011) Nutritional and metabolic status of children with autism vs. neurotypical children, and the association with autism severity. Nutr Metab (Lond) 8(1):34, Jun 8

    Article  Google Scholar 

  5. Konstantareas MM, Homatidis S (1987) Ear infections in autistic and normal children. J Autism Dev Disord 17:585–594

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  6. Adams JB, Holloway CE, Margolis M, George F (2003) Heavy metal exposures, developmental milestones, and physical symptoms in children with autism. Conference Proceedings of the Fall 2003 Defeat Autism Now! Conference on Oct 3–5, 2003 in Portland, Oregon, p. 71–75.

  7. Adams JB, Romdalvik J, Ramanujam VMS, Legator MS (2007) Mercury, lead, and zinc in baby teeth of children with autism vs. controls. J Toxicology Environ Health A 70:1046–1051

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  8. Adams JB, Romdalvik J, Levine KE, Hu L-W (2008) Mercury in first-cut baby hair of children with autism vs. typically-developing children. Toxicol Environ Chem 90(4):739–753

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  9. Rowland IR, Davies M, Evans J (1980) Tissue content of mercury in rats given methylmercury chloride orally: influence of intestinal flora. Arch Environ Health 35:155–160

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  10. Rowland IR, Robinson RD, Doherty RA (1984) Effect of diet on mercury metabolism and excretion in mice given methylmercury: role of gut flora. Arch Env Health 39:401–408

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  11. Holmes AS, Blaxill MF, Haley BE (2003) Reduced levels of mercury in first baby haircuts of autistic children. Int J Toxicology 22(4):277–285

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  12. Kern JK, Grannemann BD, Trivedi MH (2007) Adams J.B. sulfhydryl-reactive metals in autism. J Toxicol Environ Health A 70:1–7

    Article  Google Scholar 

  13. Ip P, Wong V, Ho M, Lee J, Wong W (2004) Mercury exposure in children with autistic spectrum disorder: case–control study. J Child Neurol 19:431–434

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  14. DeSoto MC, Hitlan RT (2007) Blood levels of mercury are related to diagnosis of autism: a reanalysis of an important data set. J Child Neurology 22:1308–1311

    Article  Google Scholar 

  15. Fido A, Al-Saad S (2005) Toxic trace elements in the hair of children with autism. Autism 9(3):290–298

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  16. Abdullah MM, Ly AR, Goldberg WA, Clarke-Stewart KA, Dudgeon JV, Mull CG, Chan TJ, Kent EE, Mason AZ, Ericson JE (2012) Heavy Metal in Children’s Tooth Enamel: Related to Autism and Disruptive Behaviors? J Autism Dev Disord 42:929–936

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  17. Ash MM, Nelson SJ (2003) Wheeler’s dental anatomy, physiology and occlusion, 8th edn. Elsevier, St Louis

    Google Scholar 

  18. Farmer JG, MacKenzie AB, Moody GH (2006) Human teeth as historical biomonitors of environmental and dietary lead: some lessons from isotopic studies of 19th and 20th century archival material. Environ Geochem Heal 28:421–430

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  19. Geier DA, Audhya T, Kern JK, Geier MR (2010) Blood mercury levels in autism spectrum disorder: is there a threshold level? Acta Neurobiol Exp (Wars) 70(2):177–186

    Google Scholar 

  20. Hertz-Picciotto I, Green PG, Delwiche L, Hansen R, Walker C, Pessah IN (2010) Blood mercury concentrations in CHARGE Study children with and without autism. Environ Health Perspect 118(1):161–166

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  21. Yorbik O, Kurt I, Haşimi A, Oztürk O (2010) Chromium, cadmium, and lead levels in urine of children with autism and typically developing controls. Biol Trace Elem Res 135(1–3):10–15, Epub 2009 Aug 18

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  22. Bradstreet J, Geier DA, Kartzinel JJ, Adams JB, Geier MR (2003) A case–control study of mercury burden in children with autistic spectrum disorders. J Am Phys Surg 8(3):76–79

    Google Scholar 

  23. Soden SE, Lowry JA, Garrison CB, Wasserman GS (2007) 24-Hour provoked urine excretion test for heavy metals in children with autism and typically developing controls, a pilot study. Clin Toxicol (Phila) 45(5):476–481, Jun–Aug

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  24. Nataf R, Skorupka C, Amet L, Lam A, Springbett A (2006) Lathe R Porphyrinuria in childhood autistic disorder: implications for environmental toxicity. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 214:99–108

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  25. Geier DA, Geier MR (2006) A prospective assessment of porphyrins in autistic disorders: a potential marker for heavy metal exposure. Neurotox Res 10:57–64

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  26. Geier DA, Geier MR (2007) A prospective study of mercury toxicity biomarkers in autistic spectrum disorders. J Toxicology and Environmental Health A70:1723–1730

    Article  Google Scholar 

  27. Geier DA, Kern JK, Garver CR, Adams JB, Audhya T, Nataf R, Geier MR (2009) Biomarkers of environmental toxicity and susceptibility in autism. J Neurol Sci 280:101–108, Epub - 2008 Sep 24

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  28. Woods JS, Armel SE, Fulton DI, Allen J, Wessels K, Simmonds PL, Granpeesheh D, Mumper E, Bradstreet JJ, Echeverria D, Heyer NJ, Rooney JP (2010) Urinary porphyrin excretion in neurotypical and autistic children. Environ Health Perspect 118(10)):1450–1457, Epub 2010 Jun 24

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  29. Windham GC, Zhang L, Gunier R, Croen LA, Grether JK (2006) Autism spectrum disorders in relation to distribution of hazardous air pollutants in the San Francisco bay area. Environ Health Perspect 114(9):1438–1444

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  30. Palmer RF, Blanchard S, Wood R (2009) Proximity to point sources of environmental mercury release as a predictor of autism prevalence. Health Place 15(1):18–24, Epub 2008 Feb 12

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  31. Palmer RF, Blanchard S, Stein Z, Mandell D, Miller C (2006) Environmental mercury release, special education rates, and autism disorder: an ecological study of Texas. Health Place 12(2):203–209

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  32. Shandley K, Austin DW (2011) Ancestry of pink disease (infantile acrodynia) identified as a risk factor for autism spectrum disorders. J Toxicol Environ Health A 74(18):1185–1194

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  33. Adams JB, Baral M, Geis E, Mitchell J, Ingram J, Hensley A, Zappia I, Newmark S, Gehn E, Rubin RA, Mitchell K, Bradstreet J, El-Dahr JM (2009) The severity of autism is associated with toxic metal body burden and red blood cell glutathione levels. J Toxicol 2009(532640):7. doi:10.1155/2009/532640

    Google Scholar 

  34. Adams JB, Baral M, Geis E, Mitchell J, Ingram J, Hensley A, Zappia I, Newmark S, Gehn E, Rubin RA, Mitchell K, Bradstreet J, El-Dahr J (2009) Safety and efficacy of oral DMSA therapy for children with autism spectrum disorders: part A—medical results. BMC Clin Pharmacol 9:16

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  35. Adams JB, Baral M, Geis E, Mitchell J, Ingram J, Hensley A, Zappia I, Newmark S, Gehn E, Rubin RA, Mitchell K, Bradstreet J, El-Dahr J (2009) Safety and efficacy of oral DMSA therapy for children with autism spectrum disorders: part B—behavioral results. BMC Clin Pharmacol 9:17

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  36. Puchyr RF, Bass DA, Gajewski R, Calvin M, Marquardt W, Urek K, Druyan ME, Quig D (1998) Preparation of hair for measurement of elements by inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry (ICP-MS). Biol Trace Elem Res 62(3):167–182

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  37. Cohen IL, Schmidt-Lackner S, Romanczyk R, Sudhalter V (2003) The PDD behavior inventory: a rating scale for assessing response to intervention in children with pervasive developmental disorder. J Autism Dev Disord 33(1):31–45

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  38. Rimland B and Edelson S (2000) Autism treatment evaluation checklist: statistical analyses, Autism Research Institute

  39. de Magistris L, Familiari V, Pascotto A, Sapone A, Frolli A, Iardino P, Carteni M, De Rosa M, Francavilla R, Riegler G, Militerni R, Bravaccio C (2010) Alterations of the intestinal barrier in patients with autism spectrum disorders and in their first-degree relatives. J Pediatr Gastroenterol Nutr 51(4):418–424

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  40. Rowland IR, Grasso P, Davies MJ (1975) The methylation of mercuric chloride by human intestinal bacteria. Experientia 31:1064–1065

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgments

First and foremost, we thank the many autism families and their friends who volunteered as participants in this research study. We thank the Autism Society of Greater Phoenix and the Arizona Division of Developmental Disabilities for assistance with advertising this study. We thank the staff of the Southwest College of Naturopathic Medicine (N. Foster, M. Harland, B. Peterson, N. Tkacenko) for the help with phlebotomy, and we thank ICDRC for providing use of their offices for participant visits. We thank Vitamin Diagnostics and Doctor’s Data for providing testing for this study. We thank Jon Pangborn for commenting on the manuscript.

Declaration of Competing Interests

The authors declare that they have no competing interests.

Funding Acknowledgements

This work was supported by the Autism Research Institute and the Legacy Foundation.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Arizona State University, PO Box 876106, Tempe, 85287-6006, AZ, USA

    James B. Adams, Elizabeth Geis, Eva Gehn, Melissa Loresto, Sharon Atwood, Suzanne Barnhouse & Wondra Lee

  2. Health Diagnostics, South Amboy, NJ, USA

    Tapan Audhya

  3. Integrative Developmental Pediatrics, Tucson, AZ, USA

    Sharon McDonough-Means

  4. Department of Mathematics, Whittier College, Whittier, CA, USA

    Robert A. Rubin

  5. Doctor’s Data, St. Charles, IL, USA

    David Quig

  6. Southwest College of Naturopathic Medicine, Tempe, AZ, USA

    Jessica Mitchell

Authors
  1. James B. Adams
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Tapan Audhya
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Sharon McDonough-Means
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Robert A. Rubin
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. David Quig
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  6. Elizabeth Geis
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  7. Eva Gehn
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  8. Melissa Loresto
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  9. Jessica Mitchell
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  10. Sharon Atwood
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  11. Suzanne Barnhouse
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  12. Wondra Lee
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to James B. Adams.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Adams, J.B., Audhya, T., McDonough-Means, S. et al. Toxicological Status of Children with Autism vs. Neurotypical Children and the Association with Autism Severity. Biol Trace Elem Res 151, 171–180 (2013). https://doi.org/10.1007/s12011-012-9551-1

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s12011-012-9551-1

Keywords

Search

Navigation