Skip to main content

Advertisement

SpringerLink
Log in

Migration and climate change: examining thresholds of change to guide effective adaptation decision-making

  • Original Paper
  • Published:
Population and Environment Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

The implications of environmental change for migration are little understood. Migration as a response to climate change could be seen as a failure of in situ adaptation methods, or migration could be alternatively perceived as a rational component of creative adaptation to environmental risk. This paper frames migration as part of an adaptation response to climate change impacts to natural resource condition and environmental hazards. Thresholds will be reached by communities after which migration will become a vital component of an effective adaptation response. Such changes to migration patterns have the potential to undermine migration policy unless appropriate preparations are undertaken. This paper describes an approach to assist researchers to frame how climate change will influence migration by critically analysing how thresholds of fundamental change to migration patterns could be identified, primarily in relation to two case studies in Nepal and Thailand. Future policy for internal and international migration could be guided by the analysis of such thresholds of non-linear migration and resourced effectively to ensure that socio-economic and humanitarian outcomes are maximised.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Adamo, S. (2008). Addressing environmentally induced population displacements: A delicate task. Background Paper for the Environment Research Network Cyberseminar on Environmentally Induced Population Displacements. Available at http://www.populationenvironmentresearch.org. Cited December 21, 2009.

  • Adger, W. N., Arnell, N. W., & Tompkins, E. (2005). Successful adaptation to climate change across scales. Global Environmental Change, 15, 77–86.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Adger, W. N., Dessai, S., Goulden, M., Hulme, M., Lorenzoni, I., Nelson, D., et al. (2009). Are there limits to social adaptation to climate change? Climate Change, 93, 335–354.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Adger, W. N., Kelly, P. M., Winkels, A., Huy, L. Q., & Locke, C. (2002). Migration, remittances, livelihood trajectories and social resilience. Ambio, 31, 358–366.

    Google Scholar 

  • Adhikari, J. (2000). Decisions for survival: Farm management strategies in the middle hills of Nepal. Delhi: Adroit Publishers.

    Google Scholar 

  • Agrawala, S., Raksakulthai, V., van Aalst, M., Larsen, P., Smith, J., & Reynolds, J. (2003). Development and climate change in Nepal: Focus on water resources and hydropower. Paris: OECD.

    Google Scholar 

  • Arnell, N. W. (2000). Thresholds and response to climate change forcing: The water sector. Climatic Change, 46, 305–316.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Balbo, M., & Marconi, G. (2006). International migration, diversity and urban governance in cities of the South. Habitat International, 30, 706–715.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bardsley, D. (1996). A philosophy of diversity as a basis for sustainable development: Learning from examples of agricultural development in Northeast Thailand. Unpublished Masters Thesis, The Flinders University of South Australia, Adelaide.

  • Bardsley, D. K. (2001). A comparative study of in situ agrobiodiversity conservation in Switzerland, Turkey and Nepal. Unpublished Doctoral thesis, University of Melbourne, Melbourne.

  • Bardsley, D. (2003). Risk alleviation via in situ agrobiodiversity conservation: drawing from experiences in Switzerland, Turkey and Nepal. Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment, 99, 149–157.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bardsley, D. K., & Rogers, G. (2011). Prioritising engagement for sustainable adaptation to climate change: An example from natural resource management in South Australia. Society and Natural Resources, 24(1). doi: 10.1080/08941920802287163.

  • Bardsley, D. K., & Sweeney, S. M. (2010). Guiding climate change adaptation within vulnerable natural resource management systems. Environmental Management, 45, 1127–1141.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bardsley, D., & Thomas, I. (2005). In situ agrobiodiversity conservation for regional development in Nepal. GeoJournal, 62, 27–39.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Barnett, J. (2003). Security and climate change. Global Environmental Change, 13, 7–17.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Barnett, J., & Webber, M. (2009). Accommodating migration to promote adaptation to climate change. A Policy Brief prepared for the Secretariat of the Swedish Commission on Climate Change and Development and the World Bank Report 2010 Team. Available at http://www.ccdcommission.org/Filer/documents/Accommodating%20Migration.pdf. Cited November 17, 2009.

  • Bhandari, P. (2004). Relative deprivation and migration in an agricultural setting of Nepal. Population and Environment, 25, 475–499.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Black, R., Kniveton, D., Skeldon, R., Coppard, D., Murata, A., & Schmidt-Verkerk, K. (2008). Demographics and climate change: Future trends and their policy implications for migration. Working Paper, Development Research Centre on Migration, Globalisation and Poverty, University of Sussex, Brighton.

  • Boano, C., Zetter, R., & Morris, T. (2007). Environmentally displaced people: Understanding the linkages between environmental change, livelihood and forced migration. Oxford: Refugee Studies Centre.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brooks, N., Adger, W. N., & Kelly, P. M. (2005). The determinants of vulnerability and adaptive capacity at the national level and the implications for adaptation. Global Environmental Change, 15, 151–163.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Brown, J. H. (1995). Macroecology. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brown, O. (2008). Migration and climate change. Geneva: International Organization for Migration.

    Google Scholar 

  • Castles, S. (2002). Environmental change and forced migration: Making sense of the debate. Geneva: New Issues in Refugee Research. Working Paper No. 70, United Nations High Commission for Refugees.

  • Castles, S. (2006). Global perspectives on forced migration. Asian and Pacific Migration Journal, 15, 7–28.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cernea, M. M. (1990). Internal refugee flows and development-induced population displacement. Journal of Refugee Studies, 3, 4.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cruz, R. V., Harasawa, H., Lal, M., Wu, S., Anokhin, Y., Punsalmaa, B., et al. (2007). Asia. In M. L. Parry, O. F. Canziani, J. P. Palutikof, P. J. van der Linden, & C. E. Hanson (Eds.), Climate change 2007: Impacts, adaptation and vulnerability. Contribution of working group II to the fourth assessment report of the intergovernmental panel on climate change (pp. 469–506). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • de Sherbinin, A., VanWey, L. K., McSweeney, K., Aggarwal, R., Barbieri, A., Henry, S., et al. (2008). Rural household demographics, livelihoods and the environment. Global Environmental Change, 18, 38–53.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dessai, S., Adger, W. N., Hulme, M., Turnpenny, J., Köhler, J., & Warren, R. (2004). Defining and experiencing dangerous climate change: an editorial essay. Climatic Change, 64, 11–25.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dilley, M., Chen, R. S., Deichmann, U., Lerner-Lam, A. L., & Arnold, M. (2005). Natural disaster hotspots: A global risk analysis. Washington, DC: The World Bank.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Dixit, A. (2003). Floods and vulnerability: Need to rethink flood management. Natural Hazards, 28, 155–179.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Elliott, J. R., & Pais, J. (2006). Race, class, and Hurricane Katrina: Social differences in human responses to disaster. Social Science Research, 35, 295–321.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ericson, J. P., Vörösmarty, C. J., Dingman, S. L., Ward, L. G., & Meybeck, M. (2006). Effective sea-level rise and deltas: Causes of change and human dimension implications. Global and Planetary Change, 50, 63–82.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fafchamps, M., & Shilpi, F. (2003). The spatial division of labour in Nepal. Journal of Development Studies, 39, 23–66.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fankhauser, S., Smith, J. B., & Tol, R. S. J. (1999). Weathering climate change: Some simple rules to guide adaptation decisions. Ecological Economics, 30, 67–78.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fritze, J. G., Blashki, G. A., Burke, S., & Wiseman, J. (2008). Hope, despair and transformation: Climate change and the promotion of mental health and wellbeing. International Journal of Mental Health Systems, 2, 13.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Garip, F. (2008). Social capital and migration: How do similar resources lead to divergent outcomes? Demography, 45, 591–617.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Government of Nepal. (2009). Ministry of Health and Population: Fact sheets. Available at http://www.moh.gov.np/Home/FACT.ASP. Cited June 9, 2009.

  • Granovetter, M. (1978). Threshold models of collective behaviour. American Journal of Sociology, 83, 1420–1443.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Haack, B. N., & Rafter, A. (2006). Urban growth analysis and modeling in the Kathmandu Valley, Nepal. Habitat International, 30, 1056–1065.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Harvey, N. (2006). Global change and integrated coastal management: The Asia-Pacific region. Dordrecht: Springer.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Heine, B., & Petersen, L. (2008). Adaptation and cooperation. Forced Migration Review: Climate Change and Displacement, 31, 48–50.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hirsch, P. (2009). Revisiting frontiers as transitional spaces in Thailand. The Geographical Journal, 175, 124–132.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hugo, G. J. (1996). Environmental concerns and international migration. International Migration Review, 30, 105–131.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hugo, G. (2006). Immigration responses to global change in Asia: A review. Geographical Research, 44, 155–172.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hugo, G. J. (2008a). Migration, development and environment. Geneva: International Organization for Migration.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hugo, G. J. (2008b). International migration in Indonesia and its impacts on regional development. In T. van Naerssen, E. Spaan, & A. Zoomers (Eds.), Global migration and development (pp. 43–65). London: Routledge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hugo, G. J. (2009). Emerging demographic trends in Asia and the Pacific: The implications for international migration. In Bertelsmann. Stiftung and Migration Policy Institute (Eds.), Talent, competitiveness and migration: The transatlantic council on migration (pp. 33–99). Gütersloh: Verlag Bertelsmann Stiftung.

  • Hugo, G. J. (2010). Climate change induced mobility and the existing migration regime in Asia and the Pacific. In J. McAdam (Ed.), Climate change and displacement: multidisciplinary perspectives (Chapter 2). Oxford: Hart Publishing.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hugo, G., Bardsley, D. K., Tan, Y., Sharma, V., Williams, M., & Bedford, R. (2009). Climate change and migration in the Asia-Pacific region. Unpublished Report to the Asian Development Bank, Asian Development Bank, Manila.

  • Huguet, J. W. (2008). Towards a migration information system in Asia. Asian and Pacific Migration Journal, 17, 231–255.

    Google Scholar 

  • Huguet, J. W., & Punpuing, S. (2005). International migration in Thailand. Bangkok: International Organization for Migration, Regional Office.

    Google Scholar 

  • International Organization for Migration (IOM). (2007). Discussion note: Migration and the environment. MC/INF/288. Available at http://www.iom.int/jahia/webdav/shared/shared/mainsite/about_iom/en/council/94/MC_INF_288.pdf. Cited November 17, 2009.

  • Jones, R. N. (2001). An environmental risk assessment/management framework for climate change impacts assessments. Natural Hazards, 23, 197–230.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jones, G. W. (2004). Urbanization trends in Asia: The conceptual and definitional challenges. In T. Champion & G. Hugo (Eds.), New forms of urbanization: Beyond the urban–rural dichotomy (pp. 113–131). Aldershot: Ashgate.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jones, G. W., & Douglass, M. (2008). Mega-urban regions in Pacific Asia: Urban dynamics in a global era. Singapore: National University of Singapore Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kniveton, D., Schmidt-Verkerk, K., Smith, C., & Black, R. (2008). Climate change and migration: Improving methodologies to estimate flows. Geneva: International Organization for Migration–Migration Research Series 33.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kundzewicz, Z. W., Nohara, D., Tong, J., Oki, T., Buda, S., & Takeuchi, K. (2009). Discharge of large Asian rivers—observations and projections. Quaternary International, 208, 4–10.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Laczko, F., & Collett, E. (2005). Assessing the tsunami’s effects on migration. Migration Information Source, International Organization for Migration. Available at http://www.migrationinformation.org/Feature/display.cfm?id=299. Cited November 17, 2009.

  • Levy, M. A., Anderson, B., Brickman, M., Cromer, C., Falk, B., Fekete, B., Green, P., Jaiteh, M., Lammers, R., Mara, V., MacManus, K., Metzle, S., Muñiz, M., Parris, T., Pullen, R., Thorkelson, C., Vörösmarty, C., Wollheim, W., Xing, X., & Yetman, G. (2008). Assessment of select climate change impacts on US national security. New York: CIESIN, Columbia University Working Paper, July 1, 2008.

  • Lonergan, S., & Swain, A. (1999). Environmental degradation and population displacement. Victoria BC, Canada: Global Environmental Change and Human Security Project, Research Report 2, May 1999.

  • Massey, D. S., Arango, J., Hugo, G., Kouaouci, A., Pellegrino, A., & Taylor, J. E. (1993). Theories of international migration: a review and appraisal. Population and Development Review, 19, 431–466.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Massey, D., Axinn, W., & Ghimire, D. (2007). Environmental change and out-migration: Evidence from Nepal. Ann Arbor, MI: Population Studies Center, University of Michigan Research Report 07-615, January 2007.

  • McGee, T. G. (2008). Managing the rural–urban transformation in east Asia in the 21st century. Sustainability Science, 3, 155–167.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McGranahan, G., Balk, D., & Anderson, B. (2007). The rising tide: Assessing the risks of climate change and human settlements in low elevation coastal zones. Environment and Urbanization, 19, 17–37.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McLeman, R., & Smit, B. (2006). Migration as an adaptation to climate change. Climatic Change, 76, 31–53.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Menon, N. (2009). Rainfall uncertainty and occupational choice in agricultural households of rural Nepal. Journal of Development Studies, 45, 864–888.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Meze-Hausken, E. (2008). On the (im-)possibilities of defining human climate thresholds. Climatic Change, 89, 299–324.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mimura, N. (2008). Asia-Pacific coasts and their management: States of environment. Dordrecht: Springer.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Myers, N. (2002). Environmental refugees: A growing phenomenon of the 21st century. Philosophical transactions of the Royal Society London: Biological sciences: Series B, 357, 609–613.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Nasreen, M., Hossain, K. M., & Kundu, D. K. (2006). The interrelationship between poverty, environment and sustainable development. Bangladesh e-Journal of Sociology, 3, 59–79.

    Google Scholar 

  • Numnak, G. (2005). Wanted: Skilled foreign workers in Thailand. Review of Indonesian and Malaysian Affairs, 39, 151–174.

    Google Scholar 

  • O’Hear, A. (1997). Beyond evolution: Human nature and the limits of evolutionary explanation. Oxford, UK: Clarendon Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Panday, D. R. (1999). Nepal’s failed development: Reflections on the mission and the maladies. Kathmandu: Nepal South Asia Centre.

    Google Scholar 

  • Parks, B. C., & Roberts, J. T. (2006). Globalization, vulnerability to climate change, and perceived injustice. Society and Natural Resources, 19, 337–355.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Parnwell, M. J. G. (1988). Rural poverty, development and the environment: The case of North-East Thailand. Journal of Biogeography, 15, 199–208.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Parry, M. L., Canziani, O. F., Palutikof, J. P., van der Linden, P. J., & Hanson, C. E. (2007). Climate change 2007: Impacts, adaptation and vulnerability. Contribution of working group II to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

  • Perch-Nielsen, S. L., Bättig, M. B., & Imboden, D. (2008). Exploring the link between climate change and migration. Climatic Change, 91, 375–393.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Piguet, E. (2008). Climate change and forced migration. New Issues in refugee Research, United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees Research Paper.

  • Pradhan, P. K. (2004). Population growth, migration and urbanisation. Environmental consequences in Kathmandu Valley. Nepal. In J. D. Unruh, M. S. Krol, & N. Kliot (Eds.), Environmental change and its implications for population migration (pp. 177–199). Dordrecht: Kluwer.

    Chapter  Google Scholar 

  • Preston, B. L., Suppiah, R., Macadam, I., & Bathols, J. (2006). Climate change in the Asia/Pacific region: A consultancy report prepared for the climate change and development roundtable. Aspendale, Victoria: CSIRO.

    Google Scholar 

  • Renaud, F., Bogardi, J. J., Dun, O., & Warner, K. (2007). Control, adapt or flee: How to face environmental migration?. Bonn: United Nations University, Institute for Environment and Human Security.

    Google Scholar 

  • Reuveny, R. (2007). Climate change-induced migration and violent conflict. Political Geography, 26, 656–673.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Sciortino, R., & Punpuing, S. (2009). International migration in Thailand. Bangkok: International Organization for Migration.

    Google Scholar 

  • Seddon, D., Adhikari, J., & Guring, G. (2002). Foreign labor migration and the remittance economy of Nepal. Critical Asian Studies, 34, 19–40.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Semenov, M. A., & Porter, J. R. (1995). Non-linearity in climate change impact assessment. Journal of Biogeography, 22, 597–600.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Shrestha, N. R. (1990). Landlessness and migration in Nepal. Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Shrestha, S. S., & Bhandari, P. (2007). Environmental security and labour migration in Nepal. Population and Environment, 29, 25–38.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Shrestha, N. R., Velu, R. P., & Conway, D. (1993). Frontier migration and upward mobility: The case of Nepal. Economic Development and Cultural Change, 41, 787–816.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Siddiqui, T. (2005). Migration and development: Pro-poor policy choices. Dhaka: The University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Skeldon, R. (2006). Interlinkages between internal and international migration and development in the Asian region. Population, Space and Place, 12, 15–30.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Solomon, S., Qin, D., Manning, M., Chen, Z., Marquis, M., Averyt, K. B., Tignor, M., & Miller H. L. (2007). Climate change 2007: The physical science basis. Contribution of working group I to the fourth assessment report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press.

  • Syvitski, J. (2008). Deltas at risk. Sustainability Science, 3, 23–32.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Tacoli, C. (2009). Crisis or adaptation? Migration and climate change in a context of high mobility. Environment and Urbanization, 21, 513–525.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Thaitakoo, D., & McGrath, B. (2008). Changing landscape, changing climate: Bangkok and the Chao Phraya River Delta. Places, 20, 30–35.

    Google Scholar 

  • Thieme, S., & Müller-Böker, U. (2004). Financial self-help associations among far west Nepalese labor migrants in Delhi, India. Asian and Pacific Migration Journal, 13, 339–361.

    Google Scholar 

  • Thieme, S., & Wyss, S. (2005). Migration patterns and remittance transfer in Nepal: A case study of Sainik Basti in Western Nepal. International Migration, 43, 59–98.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific (UNESCAP). (2008). 2008 ESCAP population data sheet. Bangkok: UNESCAP.

  • United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). (2007). Climate change: Impacts, vulnerabilities and adaptation in developing countries. Bonn: UNFCCC Secretariat.

  • United Nations High Commission for Refugees (UNHCR). (2008). Climate change, natural disasters and human displacement: A UNHCR perspective. Geneva: UNHCR.

  • Vanwey, L. K. (2003). Land ownership as a determinant of temporary migration in Nang Rong, Thailand. European Journal of Population, 19, 121–145.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Vecchi, G. A., & Soden, B. J. (2007). Effect of remote sea surface temperature change on tropical cyclone potential intensity. Nature, 450, 1066–1070.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Vitoolpanyakij, C. (2009). Coastal cities and adaptation to climate change: Bangkok study. In Presentation to cities at risk: Building adaptive capacity for managing climate change in Asia’s Coastal Megacities, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok, Thailand, February 26–28.

  • von Storch, H., & Woth, K. (2008). Storm surges: Perspectives and options. Sustainability Science, 3, 33–43.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Vörösmarty, C. J., Green, P., Salisbury, J., & Lammers, R. B. (2000). Global water resources: Vulnerability from climate change and population growth. Science, 289, 284–288.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wahid, S. M. (2009). Adaptation in action: Options and strategies in Bangkok. In Presentation to cities at risk: Building adaptive capacity for managing climate change in Asia’s coastal megacities, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok, Thailand, February, 26–28.

  • Warner, K., Afifi, T., Dun, O., & Stal, M. (2009). Climate change and migration: Reflections on policy needs. MEA Bulletin, Guest Article No. 64, February 27, 2009. Available at http://www.iisd.ca/mea-l/guestarticle64.html. Cited November 17, 2009.

  • Warner, K., Afifi, T., Dun, O., Stal, M., Schmidl, S., & Bogardi, J. (2008). Human security, climate change and environmentally induced migration. In T. Dokos (Ed.), Climate change: Addressing the impact on human security (pp. 62–84), Athens: Hellenic Foundation for European and Foreign Policy and Hellenic Ministry of Foreign Affairs, 2007–2008.

  • Webster, P. J., Holland, G. J., Curry, J. A., & Chang, H.-R. (2005). Changes in tropical cyclone number, duration, and intensity in a warming environment. Science, 309, 1844–1846.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • World Commission on Dams. (2000). Puk Mun dam, Mekong river basin, Thailand. In Paper prepared for the World Commission on Dams Secretariat of the World Commission on Dams, Cape Town.

  • Yamanaka, K. (2000). Nepalese labour migration to Japan: From global warriors to global workers. Ethnic and Racial Studies, 23, 62–93.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Yusuf, A. A., & Francisco, H. A. (2009). Climate change vulnerability mapping for Southeast Asia. Singapore: Economy and Environment Program for Southeast Asia.

    Google Scholar 

  • Zahran, S., Brody, S. D., Grover, H., & Vedlitz, A. (2006). Climate change vulnerability and policy support. Society and Natural Resources, 19, 771–789.

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgments

The authors wish to acknowledge the support of the Asian Development Bank’s Climate Change Program. This article draws in part from the report, “Hugo G., Bardsley D. K., Tan Y., Sharma V., Williams M. and Bedford R. (2009). Climate change and migration in the Asia-Pacific region. Unpublished Report to the Asian Development Bank, Asian Development Bank, Manila.”

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. School of Social Sciences, The University of Adelaide, Adelaide, SA, 5005, Australia

    Douglas K. Bardsley & Graeme J. Hugo

Authors
  1. Douglas K. Bardsley
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Graeme J. Hugo
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Douglas K. Bardsley.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Bardsley, D.K., Hugo, G.J. Migration and climate change: examining thresholds of change to guide effective adaptation decision-making. Popul Environ 32, 238–262 (2010). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11111-010-0126-9

Download citation

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11111-010-0126-9

Keywords

Search

Navigation