Skip to main content

Advertisement

SpringerLink
Log in

Establishing woody perennials on hostile soils in arid and semi-arid regions – A review

  • Review Article
  • Published:
Plant and Soil Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Background and aims

Woody perennials can be difficult to establish on harsh soils in arid and semi-arid regions. Historically, technological advances have focussed on methods to improve transplanting and direct-seeding but the available information on these advances remains fragmented and the edaphic factors have been largely ignored. This review explores the literature on plant establishment and identifies soil properties that limit plant response in harsh environments.

Conclusions

We reveal that some woody perennials are particularly well-adapted to dry conditions and can also help reclaim degraded landscapes. Furthermore, the environmental and phenological factors that limit the success of direct seeding are well understood but the edaphic factors are not. For example, seedbed preparation and subsoil amelioration before seeding have not been evaluated in dry regions. Seed-priming and seed-placement are also poorly understood, as is the tolerance of woody perennials to different salt types in waterlogged soils of extreme pH and high soil strength. The reason why woody perennials can penetrate strong, hard soils is not obvious from the literature. They apparently cannot exert root growth pressures of the same magnitude as domesticated plants, so they must be able to exploit soil biopores and cracks more efficiently. Other gaps in our understanding of the soil factors that limit woody perennial establishment on hostile soils are identified.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1

Similar content being viewed by others

Notes

  1. Arid and semi-arid are defined as having either100 to 500 mm per year winter rainfall or 100 to 800 mm per year summer rainfall plus seasonally extreme temperatures (FAO 1989).

References

  • Abu-Zanat M, Samarah N (2005) Physical and chemical treatments for enhancing seed germination of Oldman saltbush (Atriplex nummularia). Afr J Range Forage Sci 22:141–145

    Google Scholar 

  • Aerts R, Maes W, November E, Negussie A, Hermy M, Muys B (2006) Restoring dry Afromontane forest using bird and nurse plant effects: direct sowing of Olea europaea ssp. cuspidata seeds. For Ecol Man 230:23–31

    Google Scholar 

  • Aggarwal GC, Prihar SS (1975) A simple technique to determine axial root growth force. Plant Soil 42:485–489

    Google Scholar 

  • Auld TD (1995) Seedling survival under grazing in the arid perennial Acacia oswaldii. Biol Cons 72:27–32

    Google Scholar 

  • Azam MG, Zoebisch MA, Wickramarachchi KS (2008) Effects of cropping systems on selcted soil structural properties and crop yields in the Lam phra phloeng watershed, northeast Thailand. J Agron 7:56–62

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Balandier P, Frochot H, Sourisseau A (2009) Improvement of direct tree seeding with cover crops in afforestation: microclimate and resource availability induced by vegetation composition. For Ecol Man 257:1716–1724

    Google Scholar 

  • Barley KP, Farrell DA, Greacen EL (1965) The influence of soil strength on the penetration of a loam by plant roots. Aust J Soil Res 3:69–79

    Google Scholar 

  • Barrett-Lennard EG (2002) Restoration of saline land through revegetation. Agr Water Man 53:213–226

    Google Scholar 

  • Barrett-Lennard EG, Malcolm CV (1999) Increased concentrations of chloride beneath stands of saltbushes (Atriplex species) suggest substantial use of groundwater. Aust J Exp Agr 39:949–955

    Google Scholar 

  • Barrett-Lennard EG, Norman HC (2009) Saltbush for forage production on saltland. In: Nuberg I, George B, Reid R (eds) Agroforestry for natural resource management. CSIRO, Collingwood, pp 239–250

    Google Scholar 

  • Barron P, Dalton G (1996) Direct seeding of native trees in coastal environments. J Coast Res 12:1006–1008

    Google Scholar 

  • Barron P, Dalton G, Miller L (1998) Second-year weed control for direct seeding of Eucalyptus porosa in a low rainfall environment. Aust For 61:155–158

    Google Scholar 

  • Bartle J (2009) Integrated production systems. In: Nuberg I, George B, Reid R (eds) Agroforestry for natural resource management. CSIRO, Collingwood, pp 267–280

    Google Scholar 

  • Battaglia M (1993) Seed germination physiology of Eucalyptus delegatensis R.T. Baker in Tasmania. Aust J Bot 41:119–136

    Google Scholar 

  • Battaglia M, Reid JB (1993) The effect of microsite variation on seed germination and seedling survival of Eucalyptus delegatensis. Aust J Bot 41:169–181

    Google Scholar 

  • Bengough AG, McKenzie BM, Hallett PD, Valentine TA (2011) Root elongation, water stress, and mechanical impedance: a review of limiting stresses and beneficial root tip traits. J Exp Bot 62:59–68

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bennett S (2009) Prospects for perennials: prospects for profitable perennials in mixed farming systems. Future Farm Industries CRC, Western Australia

    Google Scholar 

  • Berdahl JD, Barker RE (1980) Germination and emergence of Russian wildrye seeds coated with hydrophilic materials. Agron J 72:1006–1008

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bernstein L (1975) Effects of salinity and sodicity on plant growth. An Rev Phytopath 13:295–312

    Google Scholar 

  • Birkedal M, Löf M, Olsson GE, Bergsten U (2010) Effects of granivorous rodents on direct seeding of oak and beech in relation to site preparation and sowing date. For Ecol Man 259:2382–2389

    Google Scholar 

  • Bonilla I, El-Hamdaoui A, Bolaños L (2004) Boron and calcium increase Pisum sativum seed germination and seedling development under salt stress. Plant Soil 267:97–107

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Bonilla-Moheno M, Holl KD (2010) Direct seeding to restore tropical mature forest species in areas of slash-and-burn agriculture. Rest Ecol 18-S2:428–445

    Google Scholar 

  • Breman H, Kessler JJ (1995) Woody plants in agro-ecosystems of semi-arid regions: with an emphasis on the Sahelian countries. Volume 23 of Advanced Series in Agricultural Sciences. Springer, Amsterdam, 340p

    Google Scholar 

  • Brofas G, Karetsos G (2002) Revegetation of mining spoils by seeding of woody species on Ghiona mountain, Central Greece. Land Deg Dev 13:461–467

    Google Scholar 

  • Bulman P, Nuberg I (2009) Farm fire wood production. In: Nuberg I, George B, Reid R (eds) Agroforestry for natural resource management. CSIRO, Collingwood, pp 183–198

    Google Scholar 

  • Buresh RJ, Tian G (1998) Soil improvement by trees in sub-Saharan Africa. Agrofor Syst 38:51–76

    Google Scholar 

  • Burgess SSO, Adams MA, Turner NC, Ong CK (1998) The redistribution of soil water by tree root systems. Oecologia 115:306–311

    Google Scholar 

  • Burnstein N, Kafkafi U (2002) Root growth under salinity stress. In: Eshel A, Kafkafi U, Waosel Y (eds) Plant roots: The Hidden Half. Marcel Dekker, New York, pp 787–805

    Google Scholar 

  • Cabin RJ, Weller SG, Lorence DH, Cordell S, Hadway LJ (2002) Effects of microsite, water, weeding, and direct seeding on the regeneration of native and alien species within a Hawaiian dry forest preserve. Bio Cons 104:181–190

    Google Scholar 

  • Camargo JLC, Ferraz IDK, Imakawa AM (2002) Rehabilitation of degraded areas of central Amazonia using direct sowing of forest tree seeds. Rest Ecol 10:636–644

    Google Scholar 

  • Carr D, Bonney N, Millsom D (2007) The effect of sowing season on the reliability of direct seeding. Rural Industries Research and Development Corporation (RIRDC) Publication No. 07/105: Australian Government, Canberra

  • Carr D, Bonney N, Huxtable D, Bartle J (2009) Improving direct seeding for woody crops in temperate Australia: a review. Rural Industries Research and Development Corporation (RIRDC) Publication No. 09/047. Australian Government, Canberra

  • Cartwright B, Zarcinas B, Spouncer L (1986) Boron toxicity in South Australian barley crops. Aust J Agr Res 37:351–359

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Casey MF, Chalmers IT (1993) Tree tops: The tree planting book for farmers. Kondinin Group. Western Australia, 168 p. ISBN 0-646-14551-7

  • Chaudhri II, Shah BH, Naqvi N, Mallick IA (1964) Investigations on the role of Suaeda fruticosa Forsk in the reclamation of saline and alkaline soils in West Pakistan plains. Plant Soil 21:1–7

    Google Scholar 

  • Clark LJ, Barraclough PB (1999) Do dicotyledons generate greater maximum axial root growth pressures than monocotyledons? J Exp Bot 50:1263–1266

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Clark LJ, Whalley WR, Dexter AR, Barraclough PB, Leigh RA (1996) Complete mechanical impedance increases the turgor of cells in the apex of pea roots. Plant Cell Env 19:1099–1102

    Google Scholar 

  • Clark LJ, Bengough AG, Whalley WR, Dexter AR, Barraclough PB (1999) Maximum axial root growth pressure in pea seedlings: effects of measurement techniques and cultivars. Plant Soil 209:101–109

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Clark LJ, Whalley WR, Barraclough PB (2003) How do roots penetrate strong soil? Plant Soil 255:93–104

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Clemens J (1980) Direct seeding of native woody plants. Landscape Aust 80:280–284

    Google Scholar 

  • Cockroft B, Olsson KA (1997) Case study of soil quality in south-eastern Australia: management of structure for roots in duplex soils. Dev Soil Sci 25:339–350

    Google Scholar 

  • Cole RJ, Holl KD, Keene CL, Zahawi RA (2011) Direct seeding of late-successional trees to restore tropical montane forest. For Ecol Man 261:1590–1597

    Google Scholar 

  • Crawley MJ (2000) Seed predators and plant population dynamics. In: Fenner M (ed) Seeds: the ecology of regeneration in plant communities. CABI, New York, pp 167–182

    Google Scholar 

  • Crawley MJ, Long CR (1995) Alternate bearing, predator satiation and seedling recruitment in Quercus robur L. J Ecol 83:683–696

    Google Scholar 

  • Crouch GL, Radwan MA (1975) Coating and impregnating with endrin protects field-sown Douglas fir seed. Pesticide Sci 6:337–345

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Dalton G (1993) Direct seeding of trees and shrubs: a manual for Australian conditions. State Flora, Primary Industries, South Australia, p 123. ISBN 0-730-83947-8

  • Dasberg S, Mendel K (1971) The effect of soil water and aeration on seed germination. J Exp Bot 22:992–998

    Google Scholar 

  • De Deyn GB, Cornelissen JHC, Bardgett RD (2008) Plant functional traits and soil carbon sequestration in contrasting biomes. Ecol Lett 11:516–531

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dexter AR (1986) Model experiments on the behaviour of roots at the interface between a tilled seed-bed and a compacted sub-soil II. Entry of pea and wheat roots into sub-soil cracks. Plant Soil 95:135–147

    Google Scholar 

  • Dexter AR (1987) Mechanics of root growth. Plant Soil 98:303–312

    Google Scholar 

  • Dexter AR (1991) Amelioration of soil by natural processes. Soil Till Res 20:87–100

    Google Scholar 

  • Dexter AR (2004) Soil physical quality. Part I. Theory, effects of soil texture, density, and organic matter, and effects on root growth. Geoderma 120:201–214

    Google Scholar 

  • Diaz-Balteiro L, Rodriguez LCE (2006) Optimal rotations on Eucalyptus plantations including carbon sequestration - a comparison of results in Brazil and Spain. For Ecol Man 229:247–258

    Google Scholar 

  • Dodd MB, Power IL (2007) Direct seeding of indigenous tree and shrub species into New Zealand hill country pasture. Ecol Man Rest 8:49–55

    Google Scholar 

  • Douglas GB, Dodd MB, Power IL (2007) Potential of direct seeding for establishing native plants into pastoral land in New Zealand. NZ J Ecol 31:143–153

    Google Scholar 

  • Doust SJ, Erskine PD, Lamb D (2006) Direct seeding to restore rainforest species: microsite effects on the early establishment and growth of rainforest tree seedlings on degraded land in the wet tropics of Australia. For Ecol Man 234:333–343

    Google Scholar 

  • Doust SJ, Erskine PD, Lamb D (2008) Restoring rainforest species by direct seeding: tree seedling establishment and growth performance on degraded land in the wet tropics of Australia. For Ecol Man 256:1178–1188

    Google Scholar 

  • Duponnois RD, Plenchette CP (2003) A mycorrhiza helper bacterium enhances ectomycorrhizal and endomycorrhizal symbiosis of Australian Acacia species. Mycorrhiza 13:85–91

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Dye PJ (1996) Response of Eucalyptus grandis trees to soil water deficits. Tree Physiol 16:233–238

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Eavis BW (1972) Soil physical conditions affecting seedling growth. I. mechanical impedance, aeration and moisture availability as influenced by bulk density and moisture levels in a sandy loam soil. Plant Soil 36:613–622

    Google Scholar 

  • Eavis BW, Ratliff LF, Taylor HM (1969) Use of a dead-load technique to determine axial root growth pressure. Agron J 61:640–643

    Google Scholar 

  • Ehui SK, Kang BT, Spencer DSC (1990) Economic analysis of soil erosion effects in alley cropping, no-till and bush fallow systems in south western Nigeria. Agr Syst 34:349–368

    Google Scholar 

  • Eliason SA, Allen EB (1997) Exotic grass competition in suppressing native shrubland re-establishment. Rest Ecol 5:245–255

    Google Scholar 

  • Ellis T, van Kijk A (2009) Agroforestry for the management of water, salt and agricultural diffuse source pollutants. CSIRO, Collingwood, pp 53–68

    Google Scholar 

  • Erefur C, Bergsten U, de Chantal M (2008) Establishment of direct seeded seedlings of Norway spruce and Scots pine: Effects of stand conditions, orientation and distance with respect to shelter tree, and fertilisation. For Ecol Man 255:1186–1195

    Google Scholar 

  • Evans CE, Etherington JR (1990) The effect of soil water potential on seed germination of some British plants. New Phytol 115:539–548

    Google Scholar 

  • Evert S, Staggenborg S, Olson BLS (2009) Soil temperature and planting depth effects on tef emergence. J Agron Crop Sci 195:232–236

    Google Scholar 

  • FAO (1989) The arid environments. In Arid zone forestry: a guide for field technicians. Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations, Rome. URL. http://www.fao.org/docrep/T0122E/t0122e00.htm

  • FAO (2000) Land and plant nutrition management service. Problem soil database. Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations, Rome. URL. http://www.fao.org/ag/agl/agll/prosoil/index.htm

  • Farooq M, Wahid A, Kobayashi N, Fujita D, Basra SMA (2009) Plant drought stress: effects, mechanisms and management. Agron Sustain Dev 29:185–212

    Google Scholar 

  • Florentine SK, Westbrooke ME (2004) Evaluation of alternative approaches to rainforest restoration on abandoned pasturelands in tropical north Queensland, Australia. Land Degrad Dev 15:1–13

    Google Scholar 

  • Flores J, Briones O (2001) Plant life-form and germination in a Mexican inter-tropical desert: effects of soil water potential and temperature. J Arid Env 47:485–497

    Google Scholar 

  • Foster AD, Rosenzweig MR (2003) Economic growth and the rise of forests. Quart J Econ 118:601–637

    Google Scholar 

  • Franco AA, De Faria SM (1997) The contribution of N2-fixing tree legumes to land reclamation and sustainability in the tropics. Soil Biol Bio 29:897–903

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Fumikazu U (2001) The expansion of Eucalyptus farm forest and its socioeconomic background: a case study of two villages in Khon Kaen province, northeast Thailand. Southeast Asian Stud 39:417–436

    Google Scholar 

  • Gerhardt K (1996) Effects of root competition and canopy openness on survival and growth of tree seedlings in a tropical seasonal dry forest. For Ecol Man 82:33–48

    Google Scholar 

  • Ghebrehiwot HM, Kulkarni MG, Kirkman KP, Staden JV (2009) Smoke solutions and temperature influence the germination and seedling growth of South African mesic grassland species. Rangeland Ecol Man 62:572–578

    Google Scholar 

  • Gill WR, Bolt GH (1955) Pfeffer’s studies of the root growth pressures exerted by plants. Agron J 47:166–168

    Google Scholar 

  • Grable AR, Siemer EG (1967) Effects of bulk density, aggregate size, and soil water suction on oxygen diffusion, redox potentials, and elongation of corn roots. Soil Sci Soc Am J 32:180–186

    Google Scholar 

  • Graham S, McGinness H, O’Connell D (2009) Effects of management techniques on the establishment of eucalypt seedlings on farmland: a review. Agrofor Syst 77:59–81

    Google Scholar 

  • Halter MR, Chanway CP, Harper GJ (1993) Growth reduction and root deformation of containerized lodgepole pine saplings 11 years after planting. For Ecol Man 56:131–146

    Google Scholar 

  • Hangs RD, Greer KJ, Sulewski CA (2004) The effect of interspecific competition on conifer seedling growth and nitrogen availability measured using ion-exchange membranes. Can J For Res 34:754–761

    Google Scholar 

  • Harper JL, Benton RA (1966) The behaviour of seeds in soil. II. The germination of seeds on the surface of a water supplying substrate. J Ecol 54:151–166

    Google Scholar 

  • Holl KD (1999) Factors limiting tropical rain forest regeneration in abandoned pasture: seed rain, seed germination, microclimate, and soil. Biotropica 31:229–242

    Google Scholar 

  • Holt C (1999) Direct seeding of native plants for revegetation. Agriculture Western Australia Farmnote No. 40/98. URL. www.agric.wa.gov.au/content/lwe/vegt/trees/f04098.pdf

  • Hulme PE (1996) Natural regeneration of yew (Taxus baccata L.): microsite, seed or herbivore? J Ecol 84:853–861

    Google Scholar 

  • Humara JM, Casares A, Majada J (2002) Effect of seed size and growing media water availability on early seedling growth in Eucalyptus globulus. For Ecol Man 167:1–11

    Google Scholar 

  • Irving F (2004) A history of direct seeding. In Tiffany C (ed) Victorian landcare catchment management. Victorian Farmers Federation, Report No. 31/04. Victoria, pp 6–7

  • ISTA (1999) International Rules for Seed Testing. Seed Science and Technology. Supplement 27. pp 1–333. International Seed Testing Association (ISTA), Bassersdorf, Switzerland

  • Janzen DH (1971) Seed predation by animals. Ann Rev Ecol Syst 2:465–492

    Google Scholar 

  • Jinks RL, Willoughby I, Baker C (2006) Direct seeding of ash (Fraxinus excelsior L.) and sycamore (Acer pseudoplatanus L.): the effects of sowing date, pre-emergent herbicides, cultivation, and protection on seedling emergence and survival. For Ecol Man 237:373–386

    Google Scholar 

  • Joseph AF, Martin FJ (1923) The hydrogen-ion concentration of heavy alkaline soils. J Agr Sci 13:321–332

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Katembe WJ, Ungar IA, Mitchell JP (1998) Effect of salinity on germination and seedling growth of two Atriplex species (Chenopodiaceae). Ann Bot 82:167–175

    Google Scholar 

  • Kell DB (2011) Breeding crop plants with deep roots: their role in sustainable carbon, nutrient and water sequestration. Ann Bot 108:407–418

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Khanna KP (1997) Comparison of growth and nutrition of young monocultures and mixed stands of Eucalyptus globulus and Acacia mearnsii. For Ecol Man 94(1–3):105–113

    Google Scholar 

  • Khurana E, Singh JS (2004) Germination and seedling growth of five tree species from tropical dry forest in relation to water stress: impact of seed size. J Trop Ecol 20:385–396

    Google Scholar 

  • Knight AJP, Beale PE, Dalton G (1998) Direct seeding of native trees and shrubs in low rainfall areas and on non-wetting sands in South Australia. Agrofor Syst 39:225–239

    Google Scholar 

  • Kozlowski TT (1999) Soil compaction and growth of woody plants. Scand J For Res 14:596–619

    Google Scholar 

  • Lindström A, Rune G (1999) Root deformation in plantations of container-grown Scots pine trees: effects on root growth, tree stability and stem straightness. Plant Soil 217:29–37

    Google Scholar 

  • Liu Y (2008) Effect of coating on plant seeds for rehabilitating deteriorated highland. PhD Dissertation, 68p. Graduate School of Engineering, Kochi University of Technology, Kochi, Japan

  • Lloyd MV, Dixon KW, Sivasithamparam K (2000) Comparative effects of different smoke treatments on germination of Australian native plants. Austral Ecology 25:610–615

    Google Scholar 

  • Löf M, Birkedal M (2009) Direct seeding of Quercus robur L. for reforestation: the influence of mechanical site preparation and sowing date on early growth of seedlings. For Ecol Man 258:704–711

    Google Scholar 

  • López M, Humara JM, Casares A, Majada J (2000) The effect of temperature and water stress on laboratory germination of Eucalyptus globulus Labill. seeds of different sizes. Ann For Sci 57:245–250

    Google Scholar 

  • Lorimer MS, Douglas LA (1995) Effect of management practice on properties of a Victorian red brown earth. I. Soil physical properties. Aust J Soil Res 31:851–857

    Google Scholar 

  • Luangviriyasaeng V (2003) Eucalypt planting in Thailand. In JW Turnbull (ed) Proceedings of an international conference. Zhanjiang, Guangdong, People’s Republic of China (7–11 April 2003), pp 28–31

  • Malcolm CV, Lindley VA, O’Leary JW, Runciman HV, Barrett-Lennard EG (2003) Halophyte and glycophyte salt tolerance at germination and the establishment of halophyte shrubs in saline environments. Plant Soil 253:171–185

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Marcar N (2009) Productive use and rehabilitation of saline land using trees. In: Nuberg I, George B, Reid R (eds) Agroforestry for natural resource management. CSIRO, Collingwood, pp 251–265

    Google Scholar 

  • Martinez-Ferri E, Balaguer L, Valladares F, Chico JM, Manrique E (2000) Energy dissipation in drought-avoiding and drought-tolerant tree species at midday during the Mediterranean summer. Tree Phys 20:131–138

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Masle J (2002) High soil strength: mechanical forces at play on root morphogenesis and in root: shoot signaling. In: Eshel A, Kafkafi U, Waosel Y (eds) Plant roots: The Hidden Half. Marcel Dekker, New York, pp 807–819

    Google Scholar 

  • Materechera SA, Dexter AR, Alston AM (1991) Penetration of very strong soils by seedling roots of different plant species. Plant Soil 135:31–41

    Google Scholar 

  • Materechera SA, Alston AM, Kirby JM, Dexter AR (1992a) Influence of root diameter on the penetration of seminal roots into a compacted subsoil. Plant Soil 144:297–303

    Google Scholar 

  • Materechera SA, Dexter AR, Alston AM, Kirby JM (1992b) Growth of seedling roots in response to external osmotic stress by polyethylene glycol 20,000. Plant Soil 143:85–191

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Materechera SA, Alison AM, Kirby JM, Dexter AR (1993) Field evaluation of laboratory techniques for predicting the ability of roots to penetrate strong soil and of the influence of roots on water sorptivity. Plant Soil 149:149–158

    Google Scholar 

  • McCulley R, Jobbágy E, Pockman W, Jackson R (2004) Nutrient uptake as a contributing explanation for deep rooting in arid and semi-arid ecosystems. Oecologia 141:620–628

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Millsom DA (2002) Direct seeding of saltbush: landholder-driven initiatives. Ecol Man Rest 3:156–166

    Google Scholar 

  • Minsheng Y (2003) Present situation and prospects for eucalypt plantations in China. In Turnbull JW (ed) Proceedings of an international conference. Zhanjiang, Guangdong, People’s Republic of China (7–11 April 2003), pp 9–15

  • Misra RK (1997) Maximum axial growth pressures of the lateral roots of pea and eucalypt. Plant Soil 188:161–170

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Misra RK, Gibbons AK (1996) Growth and morphology of eucalypt seedling-roots, in relation to soil strength arising from compaction. Plant Soil 182:1–11

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Misra RK, Dexter AR, Alston AM (1986) Maximum axial and radial growth pressures of plant roots. Plant Soil 95:315–326

    Google Scholar 

  • Munns R (2002) Comparative physiology of salt and water stress. Plant Cell Env 25:239–250

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Munns R, Tester M (2008) Mechanisms of salinity tolerance. Ann Rev Plant Bio 59:651–681

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Nilson ME, Hjältén J (2003) Covering pine-seeds immediately after seeding: effects on seedling emergence and on mortality through seed-predation. For Ecol Man 176:449–457

    Google Scholar 

  • Nuberg I, George B, Reid R (2009) Agroforestry as integrated natural resource management. In: Nuberg I, Reid R, George B (eds) Agroforestry for natural resource management. CSIRO, Collingwood, pp 1–20

    Google Scholar 

  • Nulsen RA (1981) Critical depth to saline groundwater in non-irrigated situations. Aust J Soil Res 19:83–86

    Google Scholar 

  • Palmerlee AP, Young TP (2010) Direct seeding is more cost effective than container stock across ten woody species in California. Native Plants J 11:89–102

    Google Scholar 

  • Pate JS, Jeschke WD, Aylward MJ (1995) Hydraulic architecture and xylem structure of the dimorphic root systems of South-West Australian species of Proteaceae. J Exp Bot 46:907–915

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Place G, Bowman D, Burton M, Rufty T (2008) Root penetration through a high bulk density soil layer: differential response of a crop and weed species. Plant Soil 307:179–190

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Potter L, Lee J (1998) Tree planting in Indonesia: trends, impacts and directions. Occasional Paper No.18. Center for International Forestry Research (CIFOR), Bogor, Indonesia. ISSN 0854-9818, 85p. URL. http://www.cifor.org/publications/pdf_files/OccPapers/OP-18-A.pdf

  • Potter RL, Ueckert DN, Petersen JL, McFarland ML (1986) Germination of fourwing saltbush seeds: interaction of temperature, osmotic potential, and pH. J Range Man 39:43–46

    Google Scholar 

  • Rabhi M, Talbi O, Atia A, Abdelly C, Smaoui A (2008) Selection of a halophyte that could be used in the bioreclamation of salt-affected soils in arid and semi-arid regions. In: Abdelly, C, Öztürk M, Ashraf M, Grignon C (eds) Biosaline agriculture and high salinity tolerance. Birkhäuser Verlag, Switzerland, pp 241–246

  • Rengasamy P (2002) Transient salinity and subsoil constraints to dryland farming in Australian sodic soils: an overview. Aust J Exp Agr 42:351–361

    Google Scholar 

  • Richards D, Beardsell D (1987) Seed dormancy. In: Langkamp P (ed) Germination of Australian native plant seed. Inkata, Melbourne, pp 1–13

    Google Scholar 

  • Robert JA, Lindgren BS (2006) Relationships between root form and growth, stability, and mortality in planted versus naturally regenerated lodgepole pine in north-central British Columbia. Can J For Res 36:2642–2653

    Google Scholar 

  • Robinson N, Harper R, Smettem K (2006) Soil water depletion by Eucalyptus spp. integrated into dryland agricultural systems. Plant Soil 286:141–151

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Roche S, Koch JM, Dixon KW (1997) Smoke enhanced seed germination for mine rehabilitation in the southwest of Western Australia. Rest Ecol 5:191–203

    Google Scholar 

  • Rokich DP, Dixon KW (2007) Recent advances in restoration ecology, with a focus on the Banksia woodland and the smoke germination tool. Aust J Bot 55:375–389

    Google Scholar 

  • Rudel TK (1998) Is there a forest transition? Deforestation, reforestation, and development. Rural Sociol 63:533–552

    Google Scholar 

  • Rudel TK, Coomes OT, Moran E, Achard F, Angelsen A, Xu J, Lambin E (2005) Forest transitions: towards a global understanding of land use change. Global Environ Change 15:23–31

    Google Scholar 

  • Sady GC, Holl KD, Cole RJ (2010) Germination and survival of tree seeds in a tropical montane forest restoration study (Costa Rica). Ecol Rest 28:121–124

    Google Scholar 

  • Salt D, Freudenberger D (2009) Biodiversity and habitat enhancement. In: Nuberg I, George B, Reid R (eds) Agroforestry for natural resource management. CSIRO, Collingwood, pp 87–106

    Google Scholar 

  • Scherr SJ, White A, Kaimowitz D (2004) A new agenda for forest conservation and poverty reduction: making markets work for low-income producers. Forest Trends, Center for International Forestry Research (CIFOR), Washington, DC. URL. http://www.forest-trends.org/publication_details.php?publicationID=100

  • Schofield NJ (1992) Tree planting for dryland salinity control in Australia. Agrofor Syst 20:1–23

    Google Scholar 

  • Scholz FG, Bucci SJ, Goldstein G, Meinzer FC, Franco AC (2002) Hydraulic redistribution of soil water by neotropical savanna trees. Tree Phys 22:603–612

    Google Scholar 

  • Shankarnarayan KA, Harsh LN, Kathju S (1987) Agroforestry in the arid zones of India. Agrofor Syst 5:69–88

    Google Scholar 

  • Smettem K, Harper R (2009) Using trees to manage local and regional water balances. In: Nuberg I, George B, Reid R (eds) Agroforestry for natural resource management. CSIRO, Collingwood, pp 37–52

    Google Scholar 

  • Steven DD (1991) Experiments on mechanisms of tree establishment in old-field succession: seedling emergence. Ecol 72:1066–1075

    Google Scholar 

  • Stevens JC, Barrett-Lennard EG, Dixon KW (2006) Enhancing the germination of three fodder shrubs (Atriplex amnicola, A. nummularia, A. undulata; Chenopodiaceae): implications for the optimisation of field establishment. Aust J Agr Res 57:1279–1289

    Google Scholar 

  • Stirzaker R (2002) Planting trees over shallow, saline watertables. In: Stirzaker R, Vertessy R, Sarre A (eds) Trees, water and salt. Rural Industries Research and Development Corporation (RIRDC) Publication No. 01/086. Australian Government, Canberra, pp 93–110

  • Sun D, Dickinson GR (1995) Salinity effects on tree growth, root distribution and transpiration of Casuarina cunninghamiana and Eucalyptus camaldulensis planted on a saline site in tropical north Australia. For Ecol Man 77:127–138

    Google Scholar 

  • Sun D, Dickinson GR, Bragg AL (1995) Direct seeding of Alphitonia petriei (Rhamnaceae) for gully revegetation in tropical northern Australia. For Ecol Man 73:249–257

    Google Scholar 

  • Sunderlin W, Angelsen A, Wunder S (2003) Forests and poverty alleviation. In State of the World’s Forests 2003. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. Rome, pp 61–73

  • Taylor HM, Ratliff LF (1969) Root growth pressures of cotton, peas, and peanuts. Agron J 61:398–402

    Google Scholar 

  • Teakle NL, Real D, Colmer TD (2006) Growth and ion relations in response to combined salinity and waterlogging in the perennial forage legumes Lotus corniculatus and Lotus tenuis. Plant Soil 289:369–383

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Teuton TC, Brecke BJ, Unruh JB, MacDonald GE, Miller GL, Ducar JT (2004) Factors affecting seed germination of tropical signalgrass (Urochloa subquadripara). Weed Sci 52:376–381

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Tordoff GM, Baker AJM, Willis AJ (2000) Current approaches to the revegetation and reclamation of metalliferous mine wastes. Chemosphere 41:219–228

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Tsegaye D, Moe SR, Haile M (2011) Seed predation and moisture limit germination of recalcitrant Dobera glabra (Salvadoraceae) seeds in the Afar rangelands, Ethiopia. J Arid Env 75:903–908

    Google Scholar 

  • Turk D, Keyser HH (1992) Rhizobia that nodulate tree legumes: specificity of the host for nodulation and effectiveness. Can J Microbio 68:451–460

    Google Scholar 

  • Turner SR, Pearce B, Rokich DP, Dunn RR, Merritt DJ, Majer JD, Dixon KW (2006) Influence of polymer seed coatings, soil raking, and time of sowing on seedling performance in post-mining restoration. Rest Ecol 14:267–277

    Google Scholar 

  • Veen BW, Boone FR (1990) The influence of mechanical resistance and soil water on the growth of seminal roots of maize. Soil Till Res 16:219–226

    Google Scholar 

  • Waddington J (1997) Effects of including dry polyacrylamide gel with seed on establishment of alfalfa and Russian wildrye. Can J Plant Sci 77:381–384

    Google Scholar 

  • Wadleigh CH, Ayers AD (1945) Growth and biochemical composition of bean plants as conditioned by soil moisture tension and salt concentration. Plant Phys 20:106–132

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Warnaars BC, Eavis BW (1972) Soil physical conditions affecting seedling growth. II. Mechanical impedance, aeration and moisture availability as influenced by grain-size distribution and moisture content in silica sands. Plant Soil 36:623–634

    Google Scholar 

  • Welch BL (1997) Seeded versus containerized big sagebrush plants for seed-increase gardens. J Range Man 50:611–614

    Google Scholar 

  • Whalley W, Dexter A (1993) The maximum axial growth pressure of roots of spring and autumn cultivars of lupin. Plant Soil 157:313–318

    Google Scholar 

  • Whalley W, Clark L, Dexter A (1994) The temperature-dependence of the maximum axial growth pressure of roots of pea (Pisum sativum L.). Plant Soil 163:211–215

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • White RE (1997) Principles and practice of soil science: the soil as a natural resource. Oxford University Press, Oxford

    Google Scholar 

  • Whiteley GM, Dexter A (1982) Root development and growth of oil seed, wheat and pea crops on tilled and non-tilled soil. Soil Till Res 2:379–393

    Google Scholar 

  • Whyte S (2003) Revegetation techniques: a guide for establishing native vegetation in Victoria. Greening Australia, Victoria. p 130. ISBN 1-875-34567-1. URL. http://www.greeningaustralia.org.au/community/vic

  • Wilson SM, Whitham JAH, Bhati UN, Horvath D, Tran YD (1995) Trees on farm: survey of trees on Australian farms: 1993–94. In Australian Bureau of Agricultural and Resource Economics and Sciences (ABARES) Research Report No. 95/7, Canberra

  • Woodall GS (2010) Improving the direct sowing of commercial native plants in agricultural lands of southern Australia. Rural Industries Research and Development Corporation (RIRDC) Publication No.10-061: Australian Government, Canberra. URL. http://rirdc.infoservices.com.au/items/10-061

  • Wu H, Fu Q, Giles R, Bartle J (2008) Production of Mallee biomass in Western Australia: energy balance analysis. Energy Fuel 22:190–198

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Young TP, Evans RY (2000) Container stock versus direct seeding for woody species in restoration sites. Proc Int Plant Propagator’s Soc 50:577–582

    Google Scholar 

  • Young TP, Evans RY (2005) Initial mortality and root and shoot growth of valley Oak seedlings outplanted as seeds and as container stock under different irrigation regimes. Native Plant J 6:83–90

    Google Scholar 

  • Yunusa IAM, Mele PM, Rab MA, Schefe CR, Beverly CR (2002) Priming of soil structural and hydrological properties by native woody species, annual crops, and a permanent pasture. Aust J Soil Res 40:207–219

    Google Scholar 

  • Zohar Y, Waisel Y, Karschon R (1975) Effects of light, temperature and osmotic stress on seed germination of Eucalyptus occidentalis Endl. Aust J Bot 23:391–397

    Google Scholar 

  • Zou C, Sands R, Sun O (2000) Physiological responses of radiata pine roots to soil strength and soil water deficit. Tree Phys 20:1205–1207

    Google Scholar 

  • Zou C, Penfold C, Sands R, Misra RK, Hudson I (2001) Effects of soil air-filled porosity, soil matric potential and soil strength on primary root growth of radiata pine seedlings. Plant Soil 236:105–115

    CAS  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgments

The senior author acknowledges support from the University of Adelaide in the form of an International Postgraduate Student Scholarship and the Cooperative Research Centre for Future Farm Industries for supplementary support. Helpful reviewer comments on our manuscript are also gratefully acknowledged.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Waite Research Institute, School of Agriculture, Food & Wine, University of Adelaide, Glen Osmond, SA, 5064, Australia

    Gausul Azam, Cameron D. Grant, Ian K. Nuberg & Robert S. Murray

  2. Faculty of Engineering & Surveying, University of Southern Queensland, Toowoomba, QLD, 4350, Australia

    Rabindra K. Misra

Authors
  1. Gausul Azam
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Cameron D. Grant
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Ian K. Nuberg
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Robert S. Murray
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. Rabindra K. Misra
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Gausul Azam.

Additional information

Responsible Editor: Rafael S. Oliveira.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Azam, G., Grant, C.D., Nuberg, I.K. et al. Establishing woody perennials on hostile soils in arid and semi-arid regions – A review. Plant Soil 360, 55–76 (2012). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11104-012-1215-6

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11104-012-1215-6

Keywords

Search

Navigation