Skip to main content

Advertisement

SpringerLink
Log in

Sustainability of the traditional management of Agave genetic resources in the elaboration of mezcal and tequila spirits in western Mexico

  • Research Article
  • Published:
Genetic Resources and Crop Evolution Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Over the last 30 years, cultivation of Agave tequilana Weber var blue for industrial production of tequila, has generated soil erosion, chemical pollution, displacement of traditional food crops and traditional Agave landraces used for preparing “mezcals” in the Appellation of Origin Tequila area. It is also associated with harmful cycles 8–10 years long of surplus-shortfall availability of raw material. Mezcal is the common traditional name given in Mexico to spirits like tequila, prepared with Agave tissue. We examined the traditional strategies of management of the Agave genetic resources for elaborating mezcal and tequila spirits by people of southern Jalisco, Mexico, analyzing the bases of their sustainable management, compared with management of the industrial tequila system. We found that mezcal spirits are prepared with different landraces of A. angustifolia Haw. and A. rhodacantha Trel. which are cultivated as living fences within the “milpa”, the traditional Mesoamerican multi-crop system. The whole system allows simultaneous production of agricultural, livestock and forest resources, permitting the adjustment of mezcal production to demand. Agave borders and terraces are laid out perpendicular to slopes to increase rainfall capture and filtration, and decrease soil erosion. The high species richness creates niche heterogeneity, substantially reducing pest and disease incidence. Genetic and morphological analyses indicated that traditional management and selection of A. angustifolia landraces have produced high genetic diversity (HBT = 0.438 ± 0.003) and structure (θB = 0.408) when compared with wild populations (HBT = 0.428 ± 0.015; θB = 0.212). Morphological differentiation is associated to artificial selection pressures. Differential precocity of Agave landraces and scaled planting favors continuous, year round spirit production. Growers directly market their mezcals, and a portion of the profits is reinvested in the parcel to ensure system continuity. The technological advantages of the traditional mezcal system could attenuate some challenges caused by the tequila industrial agriculture.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Fig. 1
Fig. 2
Fig. 3
Fig. 4

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Alcalde de Rueda J (1580) Relación de parte de la provincia de Motín. In: Acuña R (ed) Relaciones geográficas del siglo XVI: Michoacán (1987) Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, México, pp 156–180

  • Anderies JM, Nelson BA, Kinzing P (2008) Analyzing the impact of Agave cultivation on famine risk en arid Pre-Hispanic northern Mexico. Hum Ecol 36:409–422

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Anonymous (1974) Declaración General de Protección a la Denominación de Origen Tequila. December 9. Diario Oficial de la Federación. Modified on October 13, 1977, and October 26, 1999. México, DF

  • Bautista J (1580) Relación de Amula: Zapotitlán, Tuxcacuezco; Cusalapa. In: Acuña R (ed) Relaciones geográficas del siglo XVI: Nueva Galicia. (1988) Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, México, pp 53–82

  • Benz BF, Santana MF, Cevallos EE, Muñoz ME, Rosales AJ, Rosales MA (1997) The structure and productivity of relict stands of pitaya (Stenocereus queretaroensis; Cactacea), Jalisco, Mexico. Econ Bot 51(2):134–143

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Benz BF, López-Mestas L, Ramos-de la Vega J (2006) Organic offerings, paper, and fibers from the Huitzilapa shaft tomb, Jalisco, Mexico. Anc Mesoam 17:283–296

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bowen S, Gerritsen P (2007) Reverse leasing and power dynamics among blue agave farmers in western Mexico. Agric Hum Values 24:473–488

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bruman HJ (1940) Aboriginal drink areas of New Spain. PhD. Dissertation, University of California, Berkley

  • Bruman HJ (1945) Early coconut culture in western Mexico. Hispanic Am Hist Rev 25:301–314

    Google Scholar 

  • Bruman HJ (2000) Alcohol in ancient Mexico. University of Utah Press, Salt Lake

    Google Scholar 

  • CNT (Cámara Nacional de la Industria del Tequila) (2011) Solicitud de declaratoria del vocablo Agave como marca de uso exclusivo de las Denominaciones de Origen Tequila, Mezcal y Bacanora. 35 pp. http://207.248.177.30/mir/uploadtests/24724.177.59.14.SOLICTUD%20DECLARATORIA%20AGAVE%20CAMARA%20TEQUILA.pdf

  • Colunga-GarcíaMarín P (2012). La desaparición de los mezcales artesanales tradicionales. Periódico La Jornada. Sección de Opinión. http://www.jornada.unam.mx/2012/01/21/opinion/021a2pol

  • Colunga-GarcíaMarín P, Zizumbo-Villarreal D (2007) Tequila and other Agave spirits from west-central Mexico: current germplasm diversity, conservation and origin. Biodivers Conserv 16(6):1653–1667

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Colunga-GarcíaMarín P, Estrada-Loera E, May-Pat F (1996) Patterns of morphological variation, diversity, and domestication of wild and cultivates populations of Agave in Yucatán México. Am J Bot 83:1069–1082

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Colunga-GarcíaMarín P, Zizumbo-Villarreal D, Martínez-Torres J (2007a) Tradiciones en el aprovechamiento de los agaves mexicanos: una aportación a la protección legal y conservación de su diversidad biológica y cultural. In: Colunga-GarcíaMarín, P, Eguiarte L, Larqué A, Zizumbo-Villarreal D (eds) En lo ancestral hay futuro: del tequila, los mezcales y otros agaves CICY-CONACYT-CONABIO-INE, México, pp 229–248 + Anexo xxi–xxxviii

  • Colunga-GarcíaMarín P, Larqué A, Eguiarte L, Zizumbo-Villarreal D (2007b) El futuro de lo ancestral. In: Colunga-GarcíaMarín, P, Eguiarte L, Larqué A, Zizumbo-Villarreal D (eds) En lo ancestral hay futuro: del tequila, los mezcales y otros agaves CICY-CONACYT-CONABIO-INE, México, pp 395–402

  • Dávila-Quiñónez B (1580) Relación de Quacoman, Alimanzi, Cuzcaquauhtla y Epatlán. In: Acuña R (ed) Relaciones geográficas del siglo XVI: Michoacán (1987) Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, México, pp 135–143

  • Evans ST (1992) Productivity of maguey terrace agriculture in central Mexico during the Aztec period. In: Killion TW (ed) Gardens of prehistory: the archaeology of settlement agriculture in grater Mesoamerica. University of Alabama Press, Tuscaloosa, pp 92–115

    Google Scholar 

  • Excoffier L, Smouse PE, Quattro JM (1992) Analysis of molecular variance inferred from metric distances among DNA haplotypes: applications to human mitochondrial DNA restriction data. Genetics 131:179–191

    Google Scholar 

  • Fisher CT, Pollard HP, Frederick C (1999) Intensive agriculture and socio-political development in the lake Patzcuaro basin, Michoacan, Mexico. Antiquity 73:642–649

    Google Scholar 

  • García E (1990) Climas, 1: 4000 000. IV.4.10 (A). Atlas Nacional de México, Vol. II. Instituto de Geografía, UNAM, México

  • García-Mendoza A (2002) Distribution of the genus Agave (Agavaceae) and its endemic species in Mexico. Cactus Succul J (US) 74:177–187

    Google Scholar 

  • Gentry HS (1982) Agaves of continental North America. University of Arizona Press, Tucson, p 670

    Google Scholar 

  • Gerritsen PRW, van der Ploeg JD (2006) Dinámica espacial y temporal de la ganadería extensiva: estudio de caso de la Sierra de Manantlán en la costa sur de Jalisco. Relaciones 108(27):163–189

    Google Scholar 

  • Gobeille A, Yavitt J, Stalcup P, Valenzuela A (2006) Effects of soil management practices on soil fertility measurements on Agave tequilana plantations in Western Central Mexico. Soil Tillage Res 87:80–88

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Holsinger KE (1999) Analysis of genetic diversity in geographically structured populations: an Bayesian perspective. Hereditas 130:245–255

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kelly I (1980) Ceramic sequence in Colima: Capacha, an early phase. Anthropological papers no. 37. University of Arizona Press, Tucson

  • Keyes HMR, García-Moya E (2001) Producción animal en la selva mediana de la costa de Jalisco. In: Hernández L (comp) Historia ambiental de la Ganadería en México. L’Institut de Recherche pour le Développement-Instituto de Ecología, A.C. Xalapa, México, pp 122–132

  • Lebrón de Quiñónez (1554) Relación sumaria de la visita que hizo en Nueva España a doscientos pueblos. In: Calderón-J A (ed) Documentos para la historia del Estado de Colima, siglos XV1 XIX. Paleographic text by Serrera RM (1979) (ed) Novaro, México, pp 27–106

  • Leclert LMC, van der Meulen H, Gerritsen P (2010) Agave azul: crisis cíclicas y las posibilidades para la planeación de cultivo en el estado de Jalisco. In: Gerritsen P, Martínez L (eds) Agave Azul, sociedad y medio ambiente. Universidad de Guadalajara, Guadalajara, pp 20–43

    Google Scholar 

  • Louette D, Smale D (2000) Farmers’seed selection practices and traditional maize varieties in Cuzalapa, Mexico. Euphytica 113:25–41

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Louette D, Charrier A, Berthaud J (1997) In situ conservation of maize in Mexico: genetic diversity and maize seed management in a traditional community. Econ Bot 51(1):20–38

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Louette D, Aguilar C, Delcombel E (2001) Historia y desarrollo de la ganadería en el ejido de Zenzontla, Jalisco. In: L Hernández (comp.) Historia ambiental de la ganadería en México. L’Institut de Recherche pour le Développement (IRD)-Instituto de Ecología, A.C. (INECOL). Xalapa, México, pp 163–175

  • Luhr JS, Prestegaard KL (1988) Caldera formation at Volcan Colima, Mexico, by a large holocene volcanic debris avalanche. J Vulcanol Geotherm Res 35:335–348

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Luna-Zamora R (1999) La historia del tequila, de sus regiones y sus hombres. CONACULTA, México, DF

    Google Scholar 

  • Luna-Zamora R (2003) El estado mexicano y las políticas de patrimonialidad del Tequila. http://www.gissyal.agropolis.fr/Syal2002/FR/Atelier%205/LUNA.pdf

  • Martínez RL, Gerritsen P, Rosales AJ, Moreno HA, Contreras MS, Solís MA, Rivera EL, Cárdenas HO, Iñiguez DL, Cuevas GR, Palomera GC, García RE, Aguirre GA, Olguín LJ (2007) Implicaciones socio-ambientales de la expansión del cultivo de Agave azul (1995–2002) en el municipio de Tonaya, Jalisco, México. In: Colunga-GarcíaMarín P, Eguiarte L, Larqué A, Zizumbo-Villarreal D (eds) En lo ancestral hay futuro: del tequila, los mezcales y otros agaves. CICY-CONACYT-CONABIO-INE, México, pp 265–284

    Google Scholar 

  • Martínez-Salvador M, Beltrán-Morales L, Valdéz-Cepeda R, Arias-Rubio H, Troyo-Diegez E, Murillo-Amador B, Galindo-Jiménez J, Ortega-Rubio A (2007) Assessment of sustainability performance on the utilization of Agave (Agave salmiana ssp. crassispina) in Zacatecas, México. Int J Sustain Dev World Ecol 14(4):362–371

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Montes-Hernández S, Merick LC, Eguiarte L (2005) Maintenance of squash (Cucurbita spp.) landrace diversity by farmers activities in Mexico. Genet Resour Crop Evol 52:697–707

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Parker KC, Hamrick L, Hodgson WC, Trapnell WD, Parker AJ, Kuzoff RK (2007) Genetic consequences of pre-Columbian cultivation for Agave murpheyi and A. delamateri (Agavaceae). Am J Bot 94:1479–1490

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pérez L (1887) Estudio sobre el maguey llamado mezcal en el estado de Jalisco. Imprenta Ancira y hermano, Guadalajara

    Google Scholar 

  • Pimienta-Barrios E, Robles-Murguía C, Nobel PS (2001) Net CO2 uptake for Agave tequilana in a warm and a temperate environment. Biotropica 33(2):312–318

    Google Scholar 

  • Portillo L, Santacruz-Ruvalcaba F, Gutiérrez-Mora A, Rodríguez-Garay B (2007) Somatic embriogenesis in Agave tequilana Weber cultivar azul. In Vitro Cell Dev Biol 43:569–575

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Rendón-Salcido LA, Colunga-GarcíaMarín P, Barahona-Pérez LF, Pimienta-Barrios E, Magdub-Méndez A, Larqué A (2009) Azúcares y subproductos alcohólicos de henequén (Agave fourcoydes) en función de la edad de la planta y el clima. Revista Fitotecnia Mexicana 32:39–44

    Google Scholar 

  • Romano S (1580) Relación de Alimanzi, Cuzcaquauhtla y Epatlán. In: Acuña R (ed) Relaciones geográficas del siglo XVI: Michoacán. (1987) Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, México, pp 143–155

  • Ruiz-Corral JA, Pimienta-Barrios E, Zañudo-Hernández J (2002) Regiones térmicas optimas y marginales para el cultivo de Agave tequilana en el estado de Jalisco. Agrociencia 36:41–53

    Google Scholar 

  • Rzedowski J, Mc Vaugh R (1966) La vegetación de Nueva Galicia. Contributions Univ Mich Herb 9(1):1–123

    Google Scholar 

  • SAS (1992) SAS/STAT User’s guide, release 6.03 edition. SAS Institute, Cary

    Google Scholar 

  • Sauer C (1948) Colima of New Spain in the sixteenth century. Ibero-Americana no. 27. University of California Press, Berkley-Los Angeles

  • SE (Secretaría de Economía) (2011) Proyecto de Norma Oficial Mexicana PROY-NOM-186-SCFI-2011 Bebidas alcohólicas- bebidas alcohólicas elaboradas a partir de agaváceas—especificaciones, métodos de prueba e información commercial. 33 pp. http://207.248.177.30/mir/formatos/defaultView.aspx?SubmitID=319397

  • Trombold CD, Israde-Alcantara I (2005) Paleoenvironment and plant cultivation on terraces at La Quemada, Zacatecas. Mexico: the pollen, phytolith and diatom evidence. J Achaeol Sci 32(2):272–278

    Google Scholar 

  • Valenzuela-Sánchez KK, Juárez-Hernández RE, Cruz-Hernández A, Olalde-Portugal V, Valverde ME, Paredes-López O (2006) Plant regeneration of Agave tequilana by indirect organogenesis. In Vitro Cell Dev Biol Plant 42:336–340

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Vargas-Ponce O, Zizumbo-Villarreal D, Colunga-GarcíaMarín P (2007) In Situ diversity and maintenance of traditional Agave landraces used in spirits production in West-Central México. Econ Bot 61(4):362–375

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Vargas-Ponce O, Zizumbo-Villarreal D, Martínez-Castillo J, Coello-Coello J, Colunga-GarcíaMarín P (2009) Diversity and structure of landraces of Agave grown for spirits under traditional agriculture: a comparison with wild populations of A. angustifolia (Agavaceae) and A. tequilana commercial plantations. Am J Bot 96(2):448–457

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Walton MK (1977) The evolution and localization of mezcal and tequila in Mexico. Geografica 85:113–132

    Google Scholar 

  • Weir S, Crokerham C (1984) Estimating F-statistics for analysis of population structure. Evolution 38:1358–1370

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wilken GC (1987) Good farmers: traditional agricultural resources management in Mexico and Central America. University of California Press, Berkley

    Google Scholar 

  • Zizumbo-Villarreal D (1996) History of coconut in Mexico. Genet Resour Crop Evol 43:465–473

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zizumbo-Villarreal D, Colunga-GarcíaMarín P (1993) Tecnología agrícola tradicional, conservación de recursos naturales y desarrollo sustentable. In: Leff E, Carabias J (coord.), Cultura y manejo sustentable de los Recursos Naturales, Vol I. CIIH-UNAM-MA Porrúa, México, pp 165–202

  • Zizumbo-Villarreal D, Colunga-GarcíaMarín P (2008) Early coconut distillation and the origins of mezcal and tequila liquor in western Mexico. Genet Resour Crop Evol 55:493–510

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zizumbo-Villarreal D, González-Zozaya F, Olay-Barrientos A, Platas-Ruíz R, Cuevas-Sagardi M, Almendros-López L, Colunga-GarcíaMarín P (2009a) Archaeological evidence of the cultural importance of Agave spp. in Pre-Hispanic Colima, Mexico. Econ Bot 63(3):288–302

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zizumbo-Villarreal D, González-Zozaya F, Olay-Barrientos A, Almendros-López L, Flores-Pérez P, Colunga-GarcíaMarín P (2009b) Distillation in Western Mesoamerica Before European Contact. Econ Bot 63(4):413–426

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgments

Authors thank the Agavaceae Network coordinated by the National System of Plant Genetic Resources (SINAREFI-SAGARPA) for partial financial support through projects P-007 and AGA-001, Roberto C. Nieto-Olivares for his valuable assistance in field data collection, and the Partida family for their hospitality and their deep interest in the conservation of Agave germplasm and the culture of traditional artisanal mezcals.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Unidad de Recursos Naturales, Centro de Investigación Científica de Yucatán, Calle 43 No 130, Col. Chuburná de Hidalgo, 97070, Merida, Yucatan, Mexico

    Daniel Zizumbo-Villarreal & Patricia Colunga-GarcíaMarín

  2. Centro Universitario de Ciencias Biológicas y Agropecuarias, Universidad de Guadalajara, Guadalajara, Jalisco, Mexico

    Ofelia Vargas-Ponce

  3. Centro Universitario de la Costa Sur, Universidad de Guadalajara, Guadalajara, Jalisco, Mexico

    Jesús J. Rosales-Adame

Authors
  1. Daniel Zizumbo-Villarreal
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Ofelia Vargas-Ponce
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Jesús J. Rosales-Adame
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Patricia Colunga-GarcíaMarín
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Patricia Colunga-GarcíaMarín.

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Zizumbo-Villarreal, D., Vargas-Ponce, O., Rosales-Adame, J.J. et al. Sustainability of the traditional management of Agave genetic resources in the elaboration of mezcal and tequila spirits in western Mexico. Genet Resour Crop Evol 60, 33–47 (2013). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10722-012-9812-z

Download citation

  • Received:

  • Accepted:

  • Published:

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10722-012-9812-z

Keywords

Search

Navigation