Abstract
Given the nature of modern conservation acquisitions, which often result from gifts and opportunistic purchases of full or partial property rights, there is a risk that the resulting mosaic of conserved resources may not represent a coherent set of public values and benefits. With different public and private entities engaged in land conservation, one would further expect that each organization would apply separate goals and criteria to the selection and acquisition of its conservation portfolio. This set of circumstances raises an important question: what is the aggregate outcome of this land conservation process? Retrospective assessments provide a means of reviewing cumulative historical decisions and elucidating lessons for improving future conservation strategies. This study used GIS-based spatial analysis to examine the relationships of private and public conservation lands in Maine to a variety of landscape metrics in order to determine the degree to which these lands represent core ecological and socioeconomic values that are meaningful to a wide cross-section of citizens. Results revealed that the gains of past conservation efforts in Maine are counter-balanced to some extent by apparent gaps in the existing fabric of conservation holdings. Conservation lands capture a representative sample of diverse habitat, provide a large measure of protection for multiple conservation values and indicators, and offer an unusual mix of outdoor recreational opportunities for residents and visitors alike. Yet, the majority of parcels are relatively small and isolated, and thus do not provide contiguous habitat blocks that offset ongoing processes of landscape fragmentation. Furthermore, the majority of area associated with many of the ecological metrics examined in this report is located outside the boundaries of current conservation holdings. The under-represented metrics identified in this investigation can be viewed as potential targets for new strategic conservation initiatives.
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Abbreviations
- MDIFW:
-
Maine Department of Inland Fisheries and Wildlife
- MNAP:
-
Maine Natural Areas Program
- ME DOT:
-
Maine Department of Transportation
- ME SPO:
-
Maine State Planning Office
- US FWS:
-
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
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Acknowledgments
This investigation was supported by funding from the Senator George J. Mitchell Center for Environmental and Watershed Research at the University of Maine, the Sustainability Solutions Initiative (National Science Foundation Grant EPS-0904155), and the Maine Agricultural and Forest Experiment Station. We greatly appreciate the kind and generous assistance of Daniel Coker at the Maine Chapter of The Nature Conservancy, Janet Parker at the Maine State Planning Office, and Bethany Atkins at BWH in providing data for this assessment. We also thank Professors William Krohn and Steven Sader at the University of Maine for their thoughtful and constructive internal reviews, and four external reviewers for their perceptive insights and suggestions.
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Appendices
Appendix 1
Names, Sources, and Contents of Digital Maps Used in this Spatial Analysis
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Heritage layer 2008 http://www.beginningwithhabitat.org
Habitat locations for animal species listed as endangered, threatened, or of special interest
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DWA 2008 http://www.beginningwithhabitat.org
Deer wintering areas mapped by MDIFW as of December 1999
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Focus Areas 2008 http://www.beginningwithhabitat.org
Focus areas of statewide ecological significance identified by MDIFW and MNAP
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LTW 2007 http://www.wcscanada.ca/humanfootprint/
Last of the Wild layer in Northern Appalachian/Acadian Ecoregion, Version 1.0
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Habitats 2007 http://www.fws.gov/northeast/gulfofmaine/
CD-ROM of habitat analysis maps with inferred species distributions based on models
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NLCD 2001 http://www.epa.gov/mrlc/nlcd-2001.html/
National land cover data for Maine
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MELCD 2008 http://www.megis.maine.gov
Maine land cover data based on LTM and SPOT 5 imagery at 5 m resolution
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GOMLC7 2008 http://gulfofmaine.fws.gov/
Land cover for the Gulf of Maine watersheds
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IWWH 2006 http://www.beginningwithhabitat.org
Candidate significant habitats for inland waterfowl and wading birds based on field data + models
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EHEAGLE 2006 http://www.megis.maine.gov
Bald eagle nest sites in Maine mapped by MDIFW
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HYDROL 2006 http://www.megis.maine.gov
River and stream channels in Maine at a scale of 1:100,000
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HU12AREA 2008 http://www.megis.maine.gov
Hydrological cataloging units for Maine watersheds
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BIOPHY 1991 http://www.megis.maine.gov
Biophysical areas in Maine at a scale of 1:250,000 based on MNAP data
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MEDEM 2001 http://www.megis.maine.gov
Digital terrain elevation model for Maine based on USGS data
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SURF 1991 http://www.megis.maine.gov
Surficial geologic map of Maine at a scale of 1:250,000 prepared by Maine Geological Survey
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BEDROCK 1995 http://www.megis.maine.gov
Bedrock geology map of Maine at a scale of 1:500,000 prepared by Maine Geological Survey
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WELLS 2004 http://www.megis.maine.gov
Municipal water supply areas based on point data
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LURC 2005 http://www.maine.gov/doc/lurc/
Lands governed by the Maine Land Use Regulation Commission at a scale of 1:24,000
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MEDOTPUBRDS 2007 http://www.megis.maine.gov
Scenic travel corridors in Maine prepared at a scale of 1:24,000 by ME DOT
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Fed_listed 2002 http://www.fws.gov/r5gomp/gom/directory-gom-habitatstudy.htm
Habitat suitability for 11 federally listed threatened or endangered species
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Pif_priority 2002 http://www.fws.gov/r5gomp/gom/directory-gom-habitatstudy.htm
Habitat suitability for 11 bird species regarded as priorities for conservation management by US FWS and Partners in Flight program
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Shorebirds 2002 http://www.fws.gov/r5gomp/gom/directory-gom-habitatstudy.htm
Habitat suitability for 12 shorebird species
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Songbirds 2002 http://www.fws.gov/r5gomp/gom/directory-gom-habitatstudy.htm
Habitat suitability for 13 declining songbird species
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Waterbirds 2002 http://www.fws.gov/r5gomp/gom/directory-gom-habitatstudy.htm
Habitat suitability for 12 species of waterfowl, seabirds and wetland birds
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R5_mbmo 2002 http://www.fws.gov/r5gomp/gom/directory-gom-habitatstudy.htm
Habitat suitability for 7 bird species identified as priorities for conservation management by US FWS Region 5 Migratory Bird Management Office
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Shore_waterb 2002 http://www.fws.gov/r5gomp/gom/directory-gom-habitatstudy.htm
Habitat suitability for 9 waterbirds regarded as priorities for conservation management by US FWS, the International Shorebird Survey, and the North American Waterbird Conservation Plan.
LYNX 2009 US FWS
Critical habitat designated for Canada lynx in Maine as obtained from US FWS; the mapped area contains features essential for conservation of lynx and has recent verified records of lynx occurrence and reproduction. Some lynx habitat was excluded from this designation as a result of either being tribal lands or private lands enrolled in the Maine Healthy Forest Reserve Program that promotes active lynx habitat conservation.
OLDGROWTH 2009 New Map by Authors
Listed and recommended hardwood and conifer old-growth forest stands based on points reported by ME SPO (1983); point data were transferred to a USGS topographic map at a scale of 1:125,000 and the estimated map coordinates were then entered into a digital Arc Map data base.
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Cronan, C.S., Lilieholm, R.J., Tremblay, J. et al. An Assessment of Land Conservation Patterns in Maine Based on Spatial Analysis of Ecological and Socioeconomic Indicators. Environmental Management 45, 1076–1095 (2010). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00267-010-9481-7
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DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s00267-010-9481-7