Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Effects of a variable sun at the beginning of the Cenozoic era

  • Published:
Climatic Change Aims and scope Submit manuscript

Abstract

Periodic bursts of increased ultraviolet radiation, possibly caused by a long-term breakdown of the ozone layer in late Cretaceous to early Tertiary time, can explain the staggered extinctions of terrestrial, marine and flying reptiles, of invertebrate plankton feeders. Inherited protective devices and habits of surviving genera support this hypothesis. Increased radiation also explains the concurrent decrease in aridity indicated by the world-wide absence of marine salt and potash deposits from Maestrichtian, Danian, Paleocene and Eocene sediments, the poleward displacement of marine tropical faunas and the warm-temperate forests in high latitudes. A magnetic reversal is too brief an event to be responsible for the faunal changes; variations in solar radiation of the order of the Kelvin-Helmholtz time, or 30–40 million years, with superimposed shorter periodicities are a probable cause.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this article

Log in via an institution

Price excludes VAT (USA)
Tax calculation will be finalised during checkout.

Instant access to the full article PDF.

Institutional subscriptions

Similar content being viewed by others

References

  • Allen, L. H. Jr., et al.: 1975, Solar UV radiation in terrestrial plant communities. J. Environ. Qual. 4(3), 285–294.

    Google Scholar 

  • Andrews, J. T., et al.: 1972, An early Tertiary fauna in north-central Baffin Island, Northwest Territories, Canada: Environment and significance. Can. J. Earth Sci. 9(3), 233–238.

    Google Scholar 

  • Angione, R. J., et al.: 1976, Stratospheric ozone as viewed from Chappuis band. Nature 261(5558), 289–290.

    Google Scholar 

  • Arehart-Treichel, J.: 1976, Life in the ocean depths. Science News 109(25), 394–395.

    Google Scholar 

  • Baker-Blocker, A.: 1977, Stratospheric ozone fluctuations and evolution of skin pigmentation in man. Arch. Met. Geophys. Biokl., Ser. B 25(1), 91–100.

    Google Scholar 

  • Barrett, E. C.: 1974, Climatology from Satellites. Methuen & Co., London, 418 pp.

    Google Scholar 

  • Barton, I. J., and Robertson, D. F.: 1975, Measurement of erythemally effective ultraviolet radiation and total ozone content. Nature 258(5530), 68–69.

    Google Scholar 

  • Black, D. I.: 1967, Cosmic ray effects and faunal extinctions at geomagnetic field reversals. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 3, 225–236.

    Google Scholar 

  • Blakely, R. J., and Cox, A.: 1972, Evidence for short geomagnetic polarity intervals in early Cenozoic. J. Geophys. Res. 77(35), 7065–7072.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bowen, R.: 1961, Paleotemperature analysis of Mesozoic Belemnoidea from Germany and Poland. J. Geol. 69(1), 75–83.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bramlette, M. N., and Martini, E.: 1964, The great changes in calcerous nannofossils between the Maestrichtian and Danian. Micropaleontology 10, 291–322.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bramlette, M. N.: 1965, Massive extinctions in biota at the end of Mesozoic time. Science 148(3678), 1696–1699.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bucha, V.: 1977, Causes of glaciations, climate and weather changes. In: V. Šibrava (ed.), IGCP Project 73-1-24, ‘Quaternary Glaciations in the Northern Hemisphere’, 8–36.

  • Butler, R. F., et al.: 1977, Magnetostratigraphy of the Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary in the San Juan Basin, New Mexico. Nature 267(5609), 318–323.

    Google Scholar 

  • Caviedes, C. N.: 1975, El Nino 1972: Its climatic, ecological, human and economic implications. Geogr. Rev. 65(4), 493–509.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chou, M. C., et al.: 1973, New mammalian genera and species from the Paleocene of Nanhsiung, N. Kwangtung. Vertebrata PalAsiatica 11(1), 31–35.

    Google Scholar 

  • Colbert, E. H.: 1961, Dinosaurs, their discovery and their world. Toronto, Clarke, Irwin & Co.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cook, J. S.: 1970, Photoreactivation in animal cells, in Giese, A. C., ed., Photophysiology. New York, Academic Press 5, 191–234.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cowles, R. B.: 1939, Possible implications of reptilian thermal tolerance. Science 90, 465–466.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cowles, R. B.: 1940, Additional implications of reptilian sensitivity to high temperature. American Naturalist 74(755), 542–561.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cowles, R. B.: 1945, Heat induced sterility and its possible bearing on evolution. American Naturalist 79(781), 160–175.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cox, A.: 1968, Length of geomagnetic polarity intervals. J. Geophys. Res. 73(10), 3247–3260.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cox, A.: 1969, Geomagnetic reversals. Science 163(3864), 237–239.

    Google Scholar 

  • Crutzen, P. A., et al.: 1975, Solar proton events: stratospheric source of nitric oxide. Science 189(4201), 457.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dave, J. V., and Halpern, P.: 1976, Effect of changes in ozone amount in UV-radiation received at sea level of a model atmosphere. Atmos. Environ. 10(7), 547–555.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dawson, M. R., et al., 1976. Paleogene terrestrial vertebrates, northernmost occurrence, Ellesmere Island, Canada. Science 192(4241), 781–782.

    Google Scholar 

  • Deicha, G.: 1942, Zones Bimensuelles saisonniàres et annuelles dans le gypse parisien. C. R.Soc. Géol. France 10, 83–85.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dietrich, G., et al.: 1975, Eine Einfuehrung in die Meereskunde. Berlin, Gebrueder Borntraeger, 3rd ed.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dorman, F. H.: 1968, Some Australian oxygen isotope temperatures and a theory for a 30-million world temperature cycle. J. Geol. 76(3), 297–313.

    Google Scholar 

  • Douglas, R. G., and Savin, S. M.: 1973. Oxygen and carbon isotope analyses of Cretaceous and Tertiary foraminifera from the central North Pacific. In E. L. Winterer et al. (eds.) Initial Reports of the Deep Sea Drilling Project, Washington, U.S. Govt. 17, 591–605.

    Google Scholar 

  • Douglas, R. G., and Savin, S. M.: 1975, Oxygen and carbon isotope analyses of Cretaceous and Tertiary nannofossils from Shatskiy Rise and other sites in the North Pacific Ocean. In: R. L. Larson et al., (eds.). Initial Reports of the Deep Sea Drilling Project, Washington: U.S. Govt. 32, 509–521.

    Google Scholar 

  • Duphorn, K.: 1976, Kommt eine neue Eiszeit? Geol. Rundschau 65(3), 845–863.

    Google Scholar 

  • Erikssen, R.: 1963, Possible fluctuations in atmospheric carbon dioxide due to changes in the properties of the sea. J. Geophys. Res. 68(13), 3871–3876.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fairbridge, R. W.: 1977, Global climatic change during the 13,500-b.p. Gothenburg geomagnetic excursion. Nature 265(5593), 430–431.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fisher, J.,: 1967, Fossil birds and their adaptive radiation. In Harland, W. B. et al.,(eds.), The Fossil Record. Geol. Soc. London, 133–154.

    Google Scholar 

  • Flohn, H.: 1964, Grundfragen der Palaeoklimatologie im Lichte einer theoretischen Klimatologie. Geol. Rundschau 54(2), 504–515.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fowler, W. A.: 1972, What cooks with solar neutrinos? Nature 238(5358), 24–26.

    Google Scholar 

  • Frederic, J. E.: 1976, Solar corpuscular emission and neutral chemistry in earth's middle atmosphere. J. Geophys. Res. 81 (19), 3179–3186.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gordon, W. A.: 1975, Distribution by latitude of Phanerozoic evaporite deposits. J. Geol. 83(6), 671–684

    Google Scholar 

  • Hammond, A. L.: 1976a. Paleoclimate: Ice age earth was cool and dry. Science 191(4226), 455.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hammond, A. L.: 1976b, Solar variability: Is the sun an inconstant star? Science 191(4232), 1159–1160.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hancock, J. M.: 1967, Some Cretaceous-Tertiary marine faunal changes. In Harland, W. B. et al.,(eds.), The Fossil Record. Geol. Soc.London, 91–104.

    Google Scholar 

  • Harrison, C. G. A.: 1968, Evolutionary processes and reversals of the magnetic field. Nature 217(5123), 46–47.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hatfield, C. B., and Camp, M. J.: 1970, Mass extinctions correlated with galactic events. Geol. Soc. Amer. Bull. 81(3), 911–914.

    Google Scholar 

  • Heirtzler, J. R., et al.: 1968, Marine magnetic anomalies, geomagnetic field reversals, and motions of the ocean floor and continents. J. Geophys. Res. 73(6), 2119–2136

    Google Scholar 

  • Herman, J. R., and Goldberg, R. A.: 1976, Solar activity and thunderstorm occurrence. Trans. Amer. Geophys. Un. 57(12), 971.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jerlov, N. G.: 1951: Optical studies of ocean waters. In Reports, Swedish Deep Sea Expedition 1947/1948 31(1), 1–69.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kalinko, M. K.: 1974, Sources of sodium chloride for deposition in great salt bodies. Intern. Geol. Rev. 16(1), 93–102.

    Google Scholar 

  • Katyushina, V. V., and Romanovskiy, Yu. A.: 1974, Morning-evening asymmetry of the thermosphere during a geomagnetic disturbance. Doklady Akad. Nauk SSSR, Ser. Geol. 215(5), 1057–1060; Transl. A.G.I. 215, 22–24.

    Google Scholar 

  • Keating, B., et al.: 1975, Late Cretaceous reversal sequence. Geology 3(2), 73–76.

    Google Scholar 

  • Keiner, A.: 1969, Biological aspects of UV damage. In Urbach, F., (ed.). The biological effects of UV radiation. New York, Pergamon Press, 77–82.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kennett, J. P., and Shackleton, N. J.: 1976, Oxygen isotopic evidence for the development of the psychrosphere 38 Myr. ago. Nature 260(5551), 513–515.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kielan-Jaworowska, Z.: 1975a, Late Cretaceous mammals and dinosaurs from the Gobi Desert. Amer. Scientist 63(2), 150–159.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kielan-Jaworowska, Z.: 1975b, Evolution of the therian mammals in the late Cretaceous of Asia. Palaeont. Polonica (33), 103–131.

    Google Scholar 

  • King, J.W.: 1974, Weather and the Earth's magnetic field. Nature 247(5437), 131–134.

    Google Scholar 

  • Koch, D. E.: 1963, Fossil plants from the lower Paleocene of the Agatdalen (Angmartusut) area, central Nugssuag Peninsula, northwestern Greenland. Medd. om Grønland 172(5), 1–120.

    Google Scholar 

  • Krasovskii, V. I., and Shklovskii, I. S.: 1957, The possible influence of supernova explosions on the evolution of life on earth. Akad. Nauk SSSR, Doklady 116, 197–199.

    Google Scholar 

  • LaBrecque, J. L., et al.: 1977, Revised magnetic polarity time scale for Late Cretaceous and Cenozoic time. Geology 5(6), 330–335.

    Google Scholar 

  • Landsberg, H. E., et al.: 1965, World maps of climatology. New York, Springer-Verlag.

    Google Scholar 

  • Larsen, R. L., and Pitman, W. C.: 1972, World-Wide correlation of Mesozoic magnetic anomalies, and its implications. Geol Soc. Amer. Bull. 83(12), 3645–3662.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lefond, S. J.: 1969, Handbook of world salt resources. New York, Plenum Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Likens, G. E.: 1965, Measurement of background radiation in lakes. Ecology 46, 544–548.

    Google Scholar 

  • Liu, S. C., et al.: 1976, Effect of water vapor on destruction of ozone in stratosphere perturbed by Cl x or NO x pollutants. J. Geophys. Res. 81(18), 3111–3118.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lockwood, G. W.: 1975, Planetary brightness changes: evidence for solar variability. Science 190(4214), 560–562.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lotze, F.: 1957, Steinsalz and Kalisalze. Berlin, Gebrueder Borntrager, 2 Vols.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lowenstam, H. A., and Epstein, S.: 1954, Paleotemperatures of the post-Aptian Cretaceous as determined by the oxygen isotope method. J. Geol. 62(3), 207–248.

    Google Scholar 

  • Martin, B., and Stewart, C.: 1976, Note on effect of stratospheric ozone fluctuations on mean transmitted ultraviolet. J. Appl. Meteor. 15(5), 526–527.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mertens, R.: 1960, The World of Amphibians and Reptiles. New York, McGraw-Hill.

    Google Scholar 

  • Meyerhoff, A. A.: 1970, Continental drift: implications of paleomagnetic studies, meteorology, physical oceanography and climatology. J. Geol. 78(1), 1–51.

    Google Scholar 

  • Meyerhoff, A. A., and Teichert, C.: 1971, Continental drift III. Late Paleozoic glacial centres and Devonian to Eocene coal distribution. J. Geol. 79(2), 285–321.

    Google Scholar 

  • Moore, T. C.: 1972, DSDP successes, failures, proposals. Geotimes 17(7), 27–32.

    Google Scholar 

  • Muentzing, A.: 1961, Genetic research: a survey of methods and main results. Stockholm, LTs-Forlag.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nalivkin, D. G.: 1973, Geology of the USSR. Edinburgh, Oliver & Boyd.

    Google Scholar 

  • Novozhilov, N. I.: 1954, Mestorozhdeniya mlekopitayushchikh nizhnego eotsena i verkhnego paleotsena Mongolii — Deposits of Lower Eocene and Upper Paleocene mammals in Mongolia. Trudy Mongol. Kometeta Akad. Nauk SSSR 59, 33–46.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ogoeva, K.: 1974, Reaktsiya ust'ichnogo apparata list'ev yachmenei na destvie estestvennoi UF-radiatsii — Reaction of the stomatal apparatus of barley leaves to the effect of natural UV radiation. Isv. Akad. Nauk Tadzhik, SSR, otd. Biol. Nauk (4), 48–52; Biol. Abstr. No. 48, 293/1975.

    Google Scholar 

  • Paetzold, H. K.: 1973, The influence of solar activity on the stratospheric ozone layer. Pure and Appl. Geophys. 106–108(5–7), 1308–1311.

    Google Scholar 

  • Parkin, D. W.: 1976, Solar constant during a glaciation. Nature 260(5546), 28–31.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pirozynski, K. A.: 1977, Melanins as palaeobiological and palaeoenvironmental indicators? National Museums of Canada, Syllogeus 12, 59–62.

    Google Scholar 

  • Poloskov, S. M.: 1974, Warming of polar thermosphere by particle streams. Doklady Akad. Nauk SSSR, Ser. Geol. 218(3), 573–575; Transl. A.G.I. 218, 6–7.

    Google Scholar 

  • Predtechenskiy, P. P.: 1950, Dinamika klimata v. svyaze s izmenenyami solnechnoy deyatel'nosti —Dynamics of climate in relation to changes in solar activity. Trudy glavn. geofiz. observat. im. Voeikova 19(81), 193–208.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ramanathan, V., et al.: 1976, Sensitivity of surface-temperature and atmospheric-temperature to perturbations in stratospheric concentration of ozone and nitrogen dioxide. J. Atmos. Sci. 33(6), 1092–1112.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ransom, C. J.: 1973, Magnetism and archeology. Nature 242(5399), 518–519.

    Google Scholar 

  • Reck, R. A.: 1976, Stratospheric ozone effects on temperature. Science 192(4239), 557–559.

    Google Scholar 

  • Reid, G. C., et al.: 1976, Influence of ancient solar-proton events on the evolution of life. Nature 259(5540), 177–179.

    Google Scholar 

  • Robinson, N.: 1966, Solar Radiation. New York, Elsevier.

    Google Scholar 

  • Romer, A. S. 1966, Vertebrate Paleontology. Univ. Chicago Press, 3rd edn.

  • Rozhdestvenskii, A. K.: 1957, A short conclusion on the study of Mongolian fossil vertebrates. Vertebrata PalAsiatica 1(3), 169–186.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ruderman, M. A.: 1975, Possible consequences of nearby supernova explosions for atmospheric ozone and terrestrial life. Science 184(4141), 1079–1081.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rushmer, R. F., et al.: 1966, The Skin. Science 154(3747), 343–348.

    Google Scholar 

  • Russell, D. A.: 1977, The biotic crisis at the end of the Cretaceous period. Canadian National Museum of Natural Sciences, Syllogeus 12, 11–24.

    Google Scholar 

  • Russell, L. S.: 1973, Geological evidence on the extinction of some large terrestrial vertebrates. Can. J. Earth Sci. 10(20), 140–145.

    Google Scholar 

  • Saito, T., and Van Donk, J.: 1974, Oxygen and carbon isotope measurements of late Cretaceous and early Tertiary foraminifera. Micropaleont. 20(20), 152ff.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schindewolf, O. H.: 1954, Über die möglichen Ursachen der grossen erdgeschichtlichen Faunenschnitte: Neues Jahrb. Geol. Palaeont., Monatsh. 10, 457–465.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schindewolf, O. H.: 1962, Neokatastrophismus? Zeitschr. deutsch. geol. Ges. 114(2), 43–445.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schweitzer, H. J.: 1974, Die tertiären Koniferen Spitzbergens. Paläontographica, Ser. B. 149, 1–89.

    Google Scholar 

  • Scorer, R. S.: 1976, Commentary on ozone depletion theories. Atmos. Environ. 10(2), 177–180.

    Google Scholar 

  • Shakhov, A. A., et al.: 1965, UV-radiation of plants as a problem in space photophysiology. In Sisakyan, N. M., (ed.), Problems of Space Biology. Trans. NASA TTF-368, Washington, D.C. (March 1966) 4, 447–458.

  • Simpson, J. F.: 1966, Evolutionary pulsations and geomagnetic polarity. Geol. Soc. Amer. Bull. 77(1), 197–203.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sisson, W. B., and Caldwell, M. M.: 1976, Photosynthesis, dark respiration and growth of Rumex patientia L., exposed to ultraviolet irradiance (288–315 nanometers) simulating a reduced atmospheric ozone column. Plant Physiol. 58(4), 563–568.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sonnenfeld, P.: 1974, The Upper Miocene evaporite basins in the Mediterranean Region — a study in palaeo-oceanography. Geol. Rundschau 63(3), 1133–1172.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sonnenfeld, P.: 1977, Origins of Messinian sediments in the Mediterranean Region — some constraints on their interpretation. Ann. Géol. Pays Hellén., Athens 27, 160–189.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stöcklin, J.: 1968, Salt deposits of the Middle East. In Mattox, R. B. et al., (eds.), Saline Deposits.Geol. Soc. Amer. Spec. Paper 88, 157–182.

  • Strakhov, N. M.: 1970, Principles of Lithogenesis. New York, Consultants Bureau, 3 Vols.

    Google Scholar 

  • Svalgaard, L.: 1973, Solar activity and the weather. In Page, D. E. (ed.), Correlated interplanetary and Magnetospheric Observations. Dordrecht, Reidel. 627–639.

    Google Scholar 

  • Szalai, F. S., and McKenna, M. C.: 1971, Beginning of the age of mammals in Asia: the late Paleocene Gashata fauna, Mongolia. Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist. 144(4), 273–317.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tang, Y., and Chou, M. C.: 1964, The vertebrate bearing early Tertiary of South China: A Review. Vertebrate PalAsiatica, 8(20): 119–123; transl. 1965, Intern. Geol. Rev. 7(8), 1338–1352.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tang, Y., and Yan, D.: 1976, Notes on some mammalian fossils from the Paleocene of Qianshan and Xuancheng, Anhui. Vertebrate PalAsiatica 14(2), 91–99.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tappan, H.: 1968, Primary production, isotopes, extinctions and the atmosphere. Paleogeogr., Paleoclimat., Paleoecology 4, 187–210.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tarling, D. H., and Mitchell, J. G.: 1976, Revised Cenozoic polarity time scale. Geology 4(3), 133–136.

    Google Scholar 

  • Trewartha, G. T.: 1954, An Introduction to Climate, 3rd edn., McGraw-Hill, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tverskoi, P. N.: 1962, Physics of the Atmosphere G.I.M.I.Z., Leningrad, transl. I.P.S.T. Jerusalem, 1965.

  • Uffen, R. J.: 1963, Influence of the earth's core on the origin and evolution of life. Nature 198(4876), 143–144.

    Google Scholar 

  • Uffen, R. J.: 1965, The evolution of the interior of the earth and its effects on biological evolution. Upper Mantle Sympos., New Delhi, 1964, Intern. Un. Geol. Sci., Copenhagen (1965), 14–19.

  • Ulrich, R. K.: 1975, Solar neutrinos and variations in the solar luminosity. Science 190(4215), 619–624.

    Google Scholar 

  • Valeton, K.: 1972, Bauxites. Elsevier Publ., New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Vinot, A.: 1965, Role probable des processes biochimiques dans la formation de gypse parisien. C. R. Acad. Sci. Paris 261(18), 3650–3652.

    Google Scholar 

  • Waddington, C. J.: 1967, Paleomagnetic field reversals and cosmic radiation. Science 158(3803), 913–915.

    Google Scholar 

  • Whitten, R. C., et al.: 1976, Effect of nearby supernova explosions on atmospheric ozone. Nature 263(5576), 398–400.

    Google Scholar 

  • Williams, C. E.: 1972, Geological evidence relating to the origin and secular rotation of the solar system. Modern Geol. 3, 165–181.

    Google Scholar 

  • Williams, J. D.: 1970, Optical Properties of the Sea. Annapolis, Md. U.S. Naval Institute.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wollin, G., et al.: 1973, Magnetic intensity and climatic changes 1925–1970. Nature 242(5392), 34–37.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Worsley, T. R.: 1971, The terminal Cretaceous event. Nature 230(5292), 318–320.

    Google Scholar 

  • Worsley, T. R.: 1974, The Cretaceous-Tertiary boundary event in the ocean. In W. W. Hay (ed.), Studies in Paleo-Oceanography. Soc. Econ. Paleont. Mineral., Spec. Publ. 20, 94–125.

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. University of Windsor, N9B 3P4, Windsor, Ontario, Canada

    Peter Sonnenfeld

Authors
  1. Peter Sonnenfeld
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this article

Cite this article

Sonnenfeld, P. Effects of a variable sun at the beginning of the Cenozoic era. Climatic Change 1, 355–382 (1978). https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00135156

Download citation

  • Issue Date:

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00135156

Keywords

Search

Navigation