Han Feizi and the Old Master: A Comparative Analysis and Translation of Han Feizi Chapter 20, “Jie Lao,” and Chapter 21, “Yu Lao”

Abstract

Among the writings in the Han Feizi that have been debated most tenaciously without resolution are two chapters that contain the earliest known commentaries to what was to become the Laozi: Chapter 20, “Explicating Lao” (“Jie Lao” 解老), and Chapter 21, “Illustrating Lao” (“Yu Lao” 諭老). Both Lundahl and Zheng Liangshu have briefly reviewed the general structure and content of these two commentaries and the debates concerning their authorship and dating, yet the debate rages on. At the heart of the debate lies the question of Han Fei’s relationship with a tradition, which by the early years of the Han, was to become associated with the shadowy figure of Laozi or the Old Master. Many questions remain unanswered: Why are these commentaries preserved in the Han Feizi? How do they comport with the rest of that work? When and by whom were they written? What do they identify as the principal ideas of what was to become the Laozi and why? The answers hold vital keys for understanding not only the nature of Han Fei’s thought but also the history of the Laozi itself.

Though a definitive answer to these questions is well beyond the scope of this chapter, this preliminary investigation will outline the salient characteristics of each commentary. This chapter will suggest that the commentaries differ markedly in (1) the exegetical strategies they adopt, (2) the passages they cite, (3) the citation styles they employ, (4) the manner in which they cite particular passages, (5) the markers of date they possess, (6) the viewpoints they exhibit and (7) the vocabulary they employ to express their respective viewpoints. Moreover, and most intriguingly, they appear to draw upon two different versions of proto-Laozi collections, by which I mean sayings that would later become associated with the Laozi, but which at the time these commentaries were written did not yet carry such a title. The implications of these differences, particularly as they concern the authenticity debate, will be discussed in the conclusion to this chapter.

I would like to thank Paul R. Goldin, Victor H. Mair, John S. Major, Harold D. Roth, Matthias Richter, and Hagop Sarkissian who generously agreed to read and critique various drafts of this article. I would especially like to thank Major and Goldin, who not only read and critiqued this article, but who have provided many years of intellectual support as I have worked through various nettlesome issues in Warring States and Han intellectual history. Mair’s graceful translations of the Laozi have been an important source of inspiration for the renderings of similar passages in my translations of “Jie Lao” and “Yu Lao.”

Appendix: Han Feizi and the Old Master: Tables and Translations

Tables

Table 1

Quotation Styles in “Jie Lao”
故曰	66x
是以曰	1x
所謂X者	12x
書之所謂X者	3x
書之所謂X也
書之所謂X也者
故謂之	1x
者謂	1x
之曰	1x
而謂之……矣	2x

Table 2 Overlapping characters are indicated in red; non-overlapping characters are indicated in black; and textual variants that occur in otherwise identical lines are indicated in blue

Table 3

	“Yu Lao” proto-Laozi	Wang Bi Laozi
1/46	故曰: 卻走馬以糞。	天下有道, 卻走馬以糞。
	故曰: 戎馬生於郊。	天下無道, 戎馬生於郊。
	故曰: 罪莫大於可欲。	罪莫大於可欲,
	故曰: 禍莫大於不知足。	禍莫大於不知足;
	故曰: 咎莫大於欲得。	咎莫大於欲得。
	故曰: “知足之為足矣。”。	故知足之足, 常足。
2/54	故曰: 善建不拔, 善抱者不脫, 子孫祭祀不輟。	善建不拔, 善抱者不脫, 子孫祭祀不輟。
		修之於身, 其德乃真;
		修之於家, 其德乃餘;
		修之於鄉, 其德乃長;
		修之於國, 其德乃豐;
		修之於天下, 其德乃普。
		故
		以身觀身,
		以家觀家,
		以鄉觀鄉,
		以國觀國,
		以天下觀天下。
		吾何以知天下然哉?以此。
3/26	故曰: 重為輕根, 靜為躁君。	重為輕根, 靜為躁君。
	故曰: 君子終日行不離輜重。	是以聖人終日行不離輜重。
	故曰: 輕則失本, 躁則失君。	雖有榮觀, 燕處超然。奈何萬乘之主, 而以身輕天下?
		輕則失本, 躁則失君。
4/36	[Note: line order differs.]	將欲歙之, 必固張之;
	故曰: 魚不可脫於淵。	將欲弱之, 必固強之;
	故曰: 邦之利器不可以示人。	將欲廢之, 必固興之;
	故曰: 將欲翕之, 必固張之;	將欲奪之, 必固與之。
	故曰: 將欲弱之, 必固強之。	是謂微明。柔弱勝剛強。
	故曰: 將欲取之, 必固與之。	魚不可脫於淵,
		國之利器不可以示人。
5/63	[Note: line order differs.]	為無為, 事無事, 味無味。
	故曰: 天下難事, 必作於易;	大小多少, 報怨以德。
	天下大事, 必作於細。	圖難於其易, 為大於其細;
	故曰: 圖難於其易, 為大於其細。	天下難事, 必作於易,
	故曰: 聖人蚤從事焉。	天下大事, 必作於細。
		是以聖人終不為大, 故能成其大。
		夫輕諾必寡信, 多易必多難。
		是以聖人猶難之, 故終無難矣。
6/64	故曰: 其安易持, 其未兆易謀也。	其安易持, 其未兆易謀。
		其脆易泮, 其微易散。
		為之於未有, 治之於未亂。合抱之木, 生於毫末; 九層之臺, 起於累土; 千里之行, 始於足下。為者敗之, 執者失之。
		是以聖人無為故無敗; 無執故無失。民之從事, 常於幾成而敗之。慎終如始, 則無敗事, 是以聖人欲不欲, 不貴難得之貨; 學不學, 復衆人之所過, 以輔萬物之自然, 而不敢為
7/52	故曰: 見小曰明。	天下有始, 以為天下母。既知其母, 復知其子, 既知其子, 復守其母, 沒其不殆。塞其兌, 閉其門, 終身不勤。開其兌, 濟其事, 終身不救。
7/71	故曰: 守柔曰強。	見小曰明,
	故曰: 聖人之不病也, 以其不病, 是以無病也。	守柔曰強。
		用其光, 復歸其明, 無遺身殃; 是為習常.
		知不知上; 不知知病。夫唯病病, 是以不病。
		聖人不病, 以其病病, 是以不病
8/64	故曰: 欲不欲, 而不貴難得之貨。	其安易持, 其未兆易謀。
	故曰: 學不學, 復歸衆人之所過。	其脆易泮, 其微易散。
	故曰: 恃萬物之自然, 而不敢為。	為之於未有, 治之於未亂。
		合抱之木, 生於毫末;
		九層之臺, 起於累土;
		千里之行, 始於足下。
		為者敗之, 執者失之。
		是以聖人
		無為故無敗;
		無執故無失。
		民之從事, 常於幾成而敗之。
		慎終如始, 則無敗事。
		是以聖人
		欲不欲, 不貴難得之貨;
		學不學, 復衆人之所過,
		以輔萬物之自然, 而不敢為。
9/47	故曰: 不出於戶, 可以知天下;	不出戶知天下;
	故曰: 不闚於牖, 可以見天道。	不闚牖見天道。
	故曰: 其出彌遠者, 其智彌少.	其出彌遠, 其知彌少。
	故曰: 不行而知。	是以聖人
	故曰: 不見而明.	不行而知,
	故曰: 不為而成.	不見而名,
		不為而成.
10/41	故曰: 大器晚成; 大音希聲。	上士聞道, 勤而行之;
		中士聞道, 若存若亡;
		下士聞道, 大笑之。
		不笑不足以為道。
		故建言有之:
		明道若昧;
		進道若退;
		夷道若纇;
		上德若谷; 太白若辱;
		廣德若不足; 建德若偷;
		質真若渝; 大方無隅;
		大器晚成; 大音希聲;
		大象無形; 道隱無名.
		夫唯道, 善貸且成。
11/33	故曰: 自見者謂不明;	企者不立;
	故曰: 自伐者謂無功;	跨者不行;
		自見者不明;
		自是者不彰;
		自伐者無功;
		自矜者不長。
		其在道也, 曰:餘食贅行。
		物或惡之, 故有道者不處。
12/27	故曰: 不貴其師, 不愛其資,	善行無轍迹,
	雖智大迷, 是謂要妙。	善言無瑕讁;
		善數不用籌策;
		善閉無關楗而不可開,
		善結無繩約而不可解。
		是以聖人
		常善救人, 故無棄人;
		常善救物, 故無棄物。
		是謂襲明。
		故善人者, 不善人之師;
		不善人者, 善人之資。
		不貴其師, 不愛其資,
		雖智大迷, 是謂要妙。

Table 4 References to the concept of the state in “Yu Lao”

Table 5

Zheng Liangshu’s tabulation of bang and guo
Title	Occurrences of bang	Occurrences of guo
Zhouyi	7	0
Shangshu Yu & Xia	5	0
Shangshu Shang	8	0
Shangshu Zhou	46	18
Mao Odes	45	73
Analects	47	10
Mencius	2 (quoting ancient texts)	122
Xunzi	1 (quoting ancient texts)	246

Table 6

Tabulations of bang and guo
Title	Occurrences of bang	Occurrences of guo
Zhouyi	7	0
Shangshu Yu & Xia	16	0
Shangshu Shang	23	1
Shangshu Zhou	73	31
Shijing	49	70
Zhouli	241	381
Lunyu	119	2,951
Mozi	4 (quoting ancient texts?)	435
Mencius	2 (quoting ancient texts)	125
Xunzi	1 (quoting ancient text)	341
Zhuangzi	0	104
Shangjunshu	0	303
Guanzi	2	1,074
Heguanzi	0	61
Liezi	0	123
Xiaojing	0	5
Shuoyuan	2	533
Chunqiu fanlu	2	203
Huainanzi	1 (quoting ancient text)	321
Wenzi	0	98
Hanshi waizhuan	18 (quoting ancient texts)	217
Wang Bi Laozi	0	28

Table 7

“Yu Lao”/Laozi	Historical personalities mentioned	Date of protagonist
1/46	A man from Di presents fox furs to Duke Wen of Jin	r. 636–628 BCE
	Earl Zhi annexes Fan and Zhonghang	d.453 BCE
	The Lord of Yu covets Quchans’s Steed and Chuiji’s jade disc	c. 658 BCE
2/54	Duke Zhuang of Chu offers land to Sunshu Ao	d. 591 BCE
3/26	Master Father (Zhufu, King Wuling of Zhao) Abdicates	r. 325–295 BCE
4/36	Duke Jian [of Qi] loses his Strategic Advantage to Tian Cheng	r. 484–481 BCE
	Duke Jin loses his Strategic Advantage to the Six Ministers	r. 496–465 BCE
	King (Goujian) of Yue enters servitude in Wu	r. 676–651 BCE
	Duke Xian of Jin on the Verge of Raiding Yu	d.453 BCE
	Earl Zhi on the Verge of Raiding Chouyou	d.453 BCE
5/63	Bai Gui Traverses the Dikes	Fourth century BCE
	Bian Que Examines Duke Huan of Qi	r. 685–643 BCE
6/64	The Prince of Jin Chonger Passes Through Zheng	697–628 BCE
	Duke Xian of Jin and the Jade Disk of Chuiji	r. 676–651 BCE
7/51 and 71	Zhòu Crafts Ivory Chop Sticks and Viscount of Ji is Alarmed	Shang
	(The King of Yue) Goujian enters servitude in Wu	r. 676–651 BCE
	King Wen Insulted at Jade Gate	Zhou
	King Wu takes Zhòu Prisoner	Zhou
8/64	A Rustic from Song Acquires a Jade Stone
	Wang Shou Encounters Xu Feng
	A man of Song Crafts mulberry leaves out of Ivory
9/47	Viscount Xiang of Zhao Studies Charioteering from Prince Yuqi
	Duke Sheng of Bo Preoccupied with Rebellion
10/41	King Zhuang of Chu Takes his Lead from a Bird	d. 591 BCE
11/33	King Zhuang of Chu Desires to Attack Yue	d. 591 BCE
	Zixia Pays a Visit to Zengzi	Fifth century BCE
12/27	Zhòu Sends Jiao Li to Request the Jade Tablet of Zhou	Shang

Table 8

“Jie Lao”	“Yu Lao”	Wang Bi Laozi 46
天下有道, 卻走馬以糞。	卻走馬以糞.	天下有道, 卻走馬以糞。
天下無道, 戎馬生於郊。	戎馬生於郊.	天下無道, 戎馬生於郊。
禍莫大於可欲。	罪莫大於可欲.	罪莫大於可欲,
禍莫大於不知足。	禍莫大於不知足.	禍莫大於不知足;
咎莫大於欲利。	咎莫大於欲得.	咎莫大於欲得。
	知足之為足矣.	故知足之足, 常足。

Table 9

“Jie Lao”	“Yu Lao”	Wang Bi Laozi 54
謂不拔 謂不脫 謂祭祀不絕	善建不拔, 善抱者不脫, 子孫以祭祀不輟。	善建不拔, 善抱者不脫, 子孫以祭祀不輟。
修之身, 其德乃真; 修之家, 其德乃餘; 修之鄉, 其德乃長; 修之邦, 其德乃豐; 修之天下, 其德乃普。		修之於身, 其德乃真; 修之於家, 其德乃餘; 修之於鄉, 其德乃長; 修之於國, 其德乃豐; 修之於天下, 其德乃普。
以身觀身, 以家觀家, 以鄉觀鄉, 以邦觀邦, 以天下觀天下。 吾奚以知天下之然?以此.		故以身觀身, 以家觀家, 以鄉觀鄉, 以國觀國, 以天下觀天下。 吾何以知天下然哉?以此.

Table 10

The Distinctive Vocabulary of “Jie Lao”
Term	Meaning	Number of Occurrences
道	The ineffable source of all things in the world and their ordering principles	55x
德	Potency as an aspect of the self/body to be cultivated	51x
仁	Humaneness as an irrepressible instinct of the inner heart to be cultivated	6x
義	Righteousness as a quality defining relationships to be cultivated	13x
禮	Ritual as the expression of emotions to be cultivated for the sake of the self	26x
理	The ordering principles inherent in all things by which the Way is perceived	41x
神	Spirit as an entity of the self/body to be preserved that should not be enticed by external phenomena so the self/body may remain whole	18x
精神	Quintessential spirit as an entity of the self/body to be preserved by using sparingly	8x
靜	Tranquility as an internally cultivated state of mind	14x
虛	Emptiness as internally cultivated state of mind	19x
聖人/君子	The sage or gentleman contrasted with the ordinary or petty person	26x
眾人/小人
全身/身全	To keep oneself whole	3x
保其身	To preserve oneself	5x
長生	To extend life	2x
重生	To value life	2x
天生	Heavenly or natural vitality	2x
慈	Compassion as a virtue to be cultivated	14x

Translations

Han Feizi Chapter 20

“Jie Lao” 1 (Chen Qiyou 2000: 6.20.370–385)

[Wang Bi Laozi 38]

“Potency” refers to what is internal. “To obtain” refers to what is external. “Superior potency is not obtained” means that the spirit is not enticed by [things] external [to the self]. If the spirit is not enticed by [things] external [to the self], the self will become whole. A person whose self is whole is called “potent” as potency means obtaining the self.

As a general rule, “potency”

by having no purposive action [for things] collects;

by having no desires [for things] matures;

by not thinking [of things] becomes settled;

and by not making use [of things] becomes secure.

If you act for the sake of it and desire it, “potency” will have no place to lodge itself. If “potency” has no place to lodge itself, it cannot become whole. If you make use of it and think of it, it will not become secure. If it does not become secure, it will have no accomplishments. Having no accomplishments is born of acquiring what is external. If you acquire what is external, you will lack “potency.” If you do not acquire what is external, you will possess “potency.” Thus it is said: “The person of superior potency does not acquire [what is external]. This is why he possesses potency.”

The reason why non-action and non-thinking are valued as a means to achieve emptiness is to assure that there is nothing that fetters the mind. Now if you lack the requisite techniques (shu) and deliberately make use of non-action and non-thinking to achieve emptiness, in doing so, your mind will constantly be absorbed by thoughts of achieving emptiness and consequently you will become fettered by the thoughts of achieving emptiness. Emptiness refers to the fact that nothing fetters the mind. Indeed, to be fettered by thoughts of achieving emptiness surely is not emptiness! Those who are empty are non-active; they do not take non-action as something to constantly possess. If you do not take non-action as something to constantly possess, you will become empty. If you are empty, your potency will flourish. If your potency flourishes it is called “the superior potency.” Thus it is said: “The person of superior potency takes no deliberate action and yet there is nothing that is not accomplished.”

Humaneness is to happily love others from your inner heart. It is to delight in others’ good fortune and to detest others ‘misfortune. By nature it is what the heart cannot repress and it is not a matter of seeking recompense. Thus it is said: “The person of superior humaneness takes action but has no reason for acting.”

Righteousness is

the affairs between ruler and minister, superior and inferior;

the hierarchy between father and son, noble and humble;

the connections between intimates and acquaintances, friends and peers;

and the distinction between the close and the distant, internal and external.

It pertains to the suitability of

the minister serving his lord;

the inferior cherishing his superior;

the son serving the father;

the humble serving the noble;

intimates, acquaintances, friends and peers assisting one another;

the close being [treated as] internal and the distant being [treated as] external.

“Righteousness” is the suitability of these things. Being suitable you do such things. Thus it is said: “The person of superior righteousness takes action and has a reason for acting.”

Ritual is what gives expression to the emotions. It is the cultural expression of various instances of righteousness,

the exchanges between ruler and minister, and father and son,

and the differences between noble and base, and worthy and unworthy.

What the inner heart cherishes is not always communicated, and so a slow or quick pace, a bow or courtesy, makes it manifest.

What the true heart loves is not always apparent, and so doting words and effusive phrases, makes it believable.

Ritual refers to the various external embellishments that communicate what is internal. Thus ritual is the means by which the emotions are expressed. Thus it is said: “Ritual is what gives expression to the emotions.”

In general, people are stimulated by external things and do not understand ritual as something that is rooted in the self. Ordinary people practice ritual to show their respect for others. Therefore sometimes they are conscientious while sometimes they are lax. The Gentleman practices ritual for his own sake. Since he does so for his own sake, consequently his spirit gives rise to superior propriety. Thus a person of superior propriety is spirit-like, whereas ordinary people waiver in their commitment. Therefore they cannot respond to one another. Since they cannot respond to one another, it is said: “The person of superior propriety takes action, and no one responds to him.”

Whereas ordinary people waiver in their commitment, the sage redoubles his efforts to be reverent and respectful, practicing to the utmost the rituals that bind him hand and foot without fail. Thus it is said: “He rolls up his sleeves and persists at it.”

The Way has its accumulations,

Potency has its achievements.

Potency is the achievements of the Way.

Achievements have their concrete expressions;

Concrete expressions have their radiance.

Humaneness is the radiance of Potency.

Radiance has its saturating effect;

Its saturating effect becomes manifest in affairs.

Righteousness is the affairs of Humaneness.

Affairs have their Ritual;

Ritual has its cultural expressions.

Ritual is the cultural expression of righteousness.

Thus it is said: “Losing the Way, potency is lost; losing potency, humaneness is lost; losing humaneness, righteousness is lost; losing righteousness, ritual is lost.”

Ritual is what gives expression to the emotions;

Culture is what adorns the inner substance.

Now the Gentleman

cleaves to the inner emotions and disregards outer expressions;

cherishes the inner substance and disdains the outer adornment.

Now

Those who must rely on outer expressions to judge inner emotions, will find that such emotions are detestable;

Those who must rely on outer adornments to judge the inner substance, will find the inner substance wanting.

How should this be discussed?

The jade of Master He was never adorned with the five colors;

the pearl of Marquis Sui was never adorned with silver or gold.

This is because their inner substance was so beautiful that there was nothing in the world that could add to their beauty. Now if objects must first be adorned before they are used, it is because their inner essence lacks beauty. This is why the ritual that abides between father and son is simple and not showy and why there is a reference to “ritual being insubstantial.”

As a general rule,

There are things that do not flourish simultaneously. Yin and yang are like this.

There are ordering principles that either take away or give to. Severity and beneficence are like this.

If the inner substance is substantial, the outer appearance is insubstantial. The ritual that abides between father and son is like this. From these examples we observe that, the more intricate the ritual, the more decrepit the substance of the heart must be. Nonetheless, those who practice the rites are those who strive to touch the simple hearts of the people. When ordinary people practice the rites, they are pleased if others respond and displeased if they do not respond. Nowadays those who practice the rites, striving to touch the simple hearts of the people, provide them with a standard that causes the people to be divided by mutual criticisms. How then is it possible to avoid contention? When there is contention there is disorder. Thus it is said: “Ritual is the wearing thin of loyalty and sincerity and the beginning of disorder.”

To anticipate the occurrence of events and the workings of ordering principles is called “foreknowledge.” Foreknowledge is groundless and reckless conjecture. How should this be discussed? Zhan He was seated and his disciples were serving him when a cow mooed outside his gate. A disciple commented: “It is a black ox with a white forehead.” Zhan He responded: “Yes, it is a black ox but the white is on its horn.” He instructed someone to go and inspect the ox who found the ox to be black with a white cloth wrapped around its horn. To rely upon Master Zhan’s techniques to hamper the people’s minds is to be as precarious as a flower. Hence there is the expression: “The flower of the Way.”

Now supposing that we discarded the foresight of Master Zhan and sent out a naive lad less than five feet tall to investigate the ox. He would surely discover the ox to be black with a white cloth wrapped around its horn. Thus, the foresight of Master Zhan that distresses the mind and harms the spirit, achieved the same thing as a naive lad less than five feet tall also achieved. Hence there is the saying: “the beginning of folly.” Thus it is said: “Foreknowledge is the flowery embellishment of the Way and the beginning of folly.”

The expression “great man” refers to the greatness of his wisdom. The expression “dwells in what is substantial and not in what is insubstantial” refers to acting out of the inner substance of the emotions and disregarding the outer appearances of ritual. The expression “dwells in the fruit and not in the flower” refers to inevitably finding the causes of things in ordering principles and not guessing randomly. The expression “rejects the one and appropriates the other” refers to disregarding the outer appearance of ritual and random guessing and abiding by the causes of things in the ordering principles and the inner substance of the emotions. Thus it is said: “[He] rejects the one and appropriates in the other.”

“Jie Lao” 2 (Chen Qiyou 2000: 6.20.386–90)

[Wang Bi Laozi 58]

If people encounter disasters, their hearts become fearful and timid. If their hearts are fearful and timid, their conduct becomes proper and upright. If their conduct is proper and upright, their thoughts become cautious and mature. If their thoughts are cautious and mature, they comprehend the ordering principles of affairs. If their conduct is proper and upright, they will avoid disasters and harms. If they avoid disasters and harms, they will live out their natural lifespan. If they comprehend the ordering principles of affairs, they will inevitably achieve success. If they live out their natural lifespan, they will become whole and long-lived. If they inevitably achieve success, they will become wealthy and noble. To be whole, long-lived, wealthy and noble is called good fortune. Yet good fortune is rooted in disaster. Hence there is the statement: “It is upon disaster that good fortune rests.” This is how you achieve success.

If people encounter good fortune, wealth and honor arrive. If wealth and honor arrive, clothing and food will be the very best. If clothing and food are the very best, an arrogant heart is born. If an arrogant heart is born, conduct becomes evil and prejudicial, and actions abandon the ordering principles [of the Way]. If conduct becomes evil and prejudicial, people will die prematurely. If actions stray from the ordering principles [of the Way], people will not achieve success. If inwardly people encounter the travails of a premature death and outwardly they are bereft of a reputation for achieving success, it is a grave disaster. Yet this grave disaster is rooted in and born of good fortune. Thus it is said: “It is beneath good fortune that disaster crouches.”

For those who rely upon the ordering principles of the Way to administer affairs, there is nothing they cannot achieve. For those for whom there is nothing they cannot achieve, the greater among them can achieve the power and position of the Son of Heaven while the lesser among them can easily attain the rewards and emoluments of a minister or a general. For those who abandon the ordering principles of the Way and irresponsibly initiate various actions, though the highest among them may enjoy the positional advantage and dignity of the Son of Heaven or of a regional lord, and the lowest among them may enjoy the wealth of an Yi Dun and Tao Zhu, what you divine and pray for, they still will lose the support of their people and waste their resources and wealth. For the majority of people who scorn and abandon the ordering principles of the Way and irresponsibly initiate various actions, it is due to the fact that they do not understand that the depth and breadth of ill and good fortune and the expansiveness and far reaching quality of the Way are like this. Thus it is said: “Who knows its limit?”

There is no one in the world who does not desire wealth, nobility, wholeness or longevity and yet no one is able to avoid the disasters of poverty, low station, death or a premature end. The heart desiring wealth, nobility, wholeness or longevity and yet encountering poverty, low station, death or a premature end, means that it is unable to achieve what it desires to achieve. As a general rule, those who stray from the path of what they desire and act irresponsibly are said to be confused. Being confused, they will not be able to achieve what they desire to achieve. Indeed, ordinary people are unable to achieve what they desire to achieve. Therefore there is the reference to “confusion.” That the majority of people are unable to achieve what they desire to achieve has been so since the time when Heaven and Earth were cut and severed from one another [viz. the beginning of time; see Major et al. 2010: 114–115] until the present. Thus it is said: “Indeed, the people’s confusion has certainly persisted for a long time.”

The term “square” means

the internal and the external correspond to one another

and word and deed accord with one another.

The term “sharp” means to invariably live or die according to your proper destiny and scorn property and wealth.

The term “upright” means to feel duty bound that you must be public-minded and upright. A public-minded heart is not prejudicial.

The term “radiant” means

your office and rank are respected and honored;

your garments and furs are handsome and beautiful.

Nowadays those scholars who possess the Way,

though internally and externally they are trustworthy and compliant, they neither slander the defamed nor debase the fallen;

though determined to die to preserve their fidelity and scorn wealth, they neither insult the weak nor shame the covetous;

though righteous and impartial, they neither disregard the wicked nor accuse the selfish;

though their positional advantage is lofty and their garments are magnificent, they neither brag to the lowly nor despise the destitute.

Why is this so? It is to ensure that those who have lost their way but who are willing to listen to those who are well versed and to inquire of those in the know, will no longer be confused. Now the reason why most people desire to achieve success but instead encounter failure, is born of the fact that they do not understand the Way and its ordering principles and they are not willing to inquire of the knowledgeable or listen to the capable. Since most ordinary people are not willing to inquire of the knowledgeable or listen to the capable, if sages insist upon reproaching them for their disasters and failures, there is only resentment. Ordinary people are numerous while sages are few. That the few cannot prevail upon the numerous is a matter of numbers. Indeed, to initiate actions that will make enemies of the world is not the Way to keep your body whole or prolong your life. Thus it is said: “He is square but does not cut; he is sharp but does not stab; he is upright but not unrestrained; he is radiant but don’t dazzle.”

“Jie Lao” 3 (Chen Qiyou 2000: 6.20.394–99)

[Wang Bi Laozi 59]

Acuity of hearing, clarity of sight, intuition and wisdom are due to Heaven. Activity, repose, reflection and planning are due to humankind. Those who are human

avail themselves of Heaven’s clarity to see;

rely on Heaven’s acuity to hear;

depend on Heaven’s wisdom to reflect and plan.

Thus,

if sight is strained, eyes will not see clearly;

if hearing is overwrought, ears will not hear acutely;

if reflection and planning exceed proper limits, understanding will become chaotic.

If eyes do not see clearly, they cannot discern the difference between black and white;

if ears do not hear acutely, they cannot distinguish the high from the low note;⁷

if understanding is chaotic, it cannot fathom the causes of success and failure.

If eyes cannot discern the difference between black and white, it is called blindness;

if ears cannot distinguish a high note from a low note, it is called deafness;

if understanding cannot fathom the causes of success and failure, it is called daftness.

If blind, you cannot avoid dangers in broad daylight;

if deaf, you cannot comprehend the harm accompanying the clap of thunder

if daft, you cannot avoid the disasters [attendant upon violating] the laws and ordinances pertaining to the populace.

The text’s reference to “governing the people” means

to suit the rhythms of [the people’s] activity and repose [among the populace],

and to minimize their wasting time thinking and planning.

The reference to “serving Heaven” means

not pressing to the limit the strength of your hearing or eyesight,

and not exhausting the faculties of your wisdom and knowledge.

If you press to the limit or exhaust [such faculties], you will greatly expend your spirit. If you greatly expend your spirit, disasters from blindness, deafness, and daftness will befall you. This is precisely why you must be sparing of such faculties. Being sparing of such faculties, you will cherish your quintessential spirit and be sparing of your wise knowledge. Thus it is said: “For governing the people and serving Heaven nothing compares to being sparing.”

When the majority of people use their spirit, they do so rashly. Being rash, they expend much of their spirit. Greatly expending their spirit, they are said to be wasteful. When sages use their spirit, they do so tranquilly. Being tranquil, they expend very little of their spirit. Expending very little of their spirit, they are said to be sparing. To be sparing, constitutes a technique that is born of the ordering principles of the Way. Indeed, those who can be sparing follow the Way and submit to its ordering principles. Most people who encounter trouble or are entangled by disasters still do not know to retreat and submit to and follow the ordering principles of the Way. Yet even before disaster or trouble appear, empty and non-active, the sage submits to and follows the ordering principles of the Way and so the sage is said to “submit early on [to the Way].” Thus it is said: “For only if you are sparing will you early on submit [to the Way].”

The thought of those who know how to govern the people is tranquil;

The apertures of those who know how to serve Heaven are empty.

When thought is tranquil, previously [accumulated] potency will not leave [the body].

When apertures are empty, harmonious qi will daily enter [the body].

Thus the expression: “repeatedly accumulating potency.”

Now those who are able to direct the previously [accumulated] potency not to leave [the body] and the new harmonious qi to daily enter [the body], are those who early on submit.⁸ Thus it is said: “Early submission-this refers to repeatedly accumulating potency.”

Only after you accumulate potency, will your spirit become tranquil.

Only after your spirit becomes tranquil, will a sense of harmony pervade.

Only after a sense of harmony pervades, will your plans be realized.

Only after your plans are realized, can you manage the myriad things.

If you can manage the myriad things, in battle you will easily defeat the enemy. If in battle you easily defeat the enemy, your judgments will invariably prevail over the age. Since your judgments invariably prevail over the age, there is the expression: “there is nothing that you cannot overcome.” There being nothing that one cannot overcome is rooted in your repeatedly accumulating potency. Thus it is said: “When you repeatedly accumulate potency there is nothing that you cannot overcome.”

If you easily defeat your enemy in battle, you will unite all the states in the world. If you judgments invariably prevail over the age, the people will submit. Advancing, you will unite the world; while retreating, the people will follow. Since your techniques are far reaching, the majority of people will not perceive their roots or their branches. Since no one will perceive either their roots or branches, no one will know their limits. Thus it is said: “When there is nothing you cannot overcome, no one will know your limits.”

As a general rule, those who first possess a state and then lose it or those who first preserve their body and then die prematurely cannot be said to be capable of possessing their states or preserving their bodies. Those who possess a state must be capable of maintaining the security of their Altars of Land and Grain while those who preserve their bodies must be capable of living out their naturally allotted life-spans. Only then can it be said that they are capable of possessing their states or preserving their bodies. Indeed, to be able to possess a state or preserve the body you must embody the Way. If you embody the Way, your wisdom will deepen. As your wisdom deepens, your comprehension will become far-reaching. If your comprehension becomes far-reaching, the majority of people will not be able to detect its limit. Only if you embody the Way will you be able to ensure that other people will not detect the limit of your undertakings. If others do not detect the limit of your undertakings you will be able to preserve your person and take possession of a state. Thus it is said: “When no one knows your limits, you will be able to take possession of the state.”

The term “mother” in the expression “to possess the mother of the state” refers to the Way. The Way is born of the techniques by which you possess the state. Because it is the techniques by which you possess the state, it is referred to as “possessing the mother of the state.” Indeed, if you use the Way to moves and operate in perfect accord with the age, in maintaining your life you will persevere and in maintaining your emoluments you will endure. Thus it is said: “If you possess the mother of the state, you can long endure.”

Trees possess roots that spread and those that penetrate straight down into the soil. The roots that penetrate straight down into the soil are what the text calls the “tap roots.”

The “tap roots” are the means by which the tree establishes life.

The spreading roots are the means by which the tree maintains life.

Potency is the means by which people establish life.

Emoluments are the means by which people support life.

Now if you establish yourself with the ordering principles of the Way, you will maintain emoluments for a long time. Thus it states: “Deepen the roots.” If you embody the Way, you will extend your life. Thus it is said: “Secure the roots.” If the roots are secure, life will be long and if the roots are deep, vision will be long lasting. Thus it is said: “Deepen and secure the roots. This is the Way of long life and long-lasting vision.”

“Jie Lao” 4 (Chen Qiyou 2000: 6.20.400–5)

[Wang Bi Laozi 60]

If craftsmen repeatedly change their work, they diminish their accomplishments;

If workmen repeatedly change their occupations, they lose their accomplishments.

If one man loses half-a-day’s productivity daily, in ten days the productivity of five men will be lost.

If ten thousand men lose half-a-day’s productivity daily, in ten days the productivity of fifty thousand men will be lost.

Thus, the more numerous are those who frequently change their work, the greater are the losses that will be incurred. As a general rule, if laws and ordinances are altered, what is advantageous and disadvantageous will likewise change. If what is advantageous and disadvantageous change, the duties of the people will likewise change. A change in the people’s duties is known as a change in the people’s work. Therefore, if you rely upon the ordering principles [of the Way] you will observe that if tasks are weighty and numerous and they are frequently shifted, there will be few results. If you store a large vessel but frequently move it, it will suffer numerous damages. If you fry a small fish but frequently disturb it, you will ruin its flavor. Likewise, if you rule a large state but frequently change the laws, the people will suffer hardships because of it. This is why the ruler who possesses the Way values emptiness and tranquility and looks gravely upon changing the laws. Thus it is said: “Ruling a large state is like frying a small fish.”

If people fall ill, they prize physicians.

If people encounter disasters, they fear ghosts.

If a sage occupies the throne, the people will have few desires. If the people have few desires, their blood and vital breath will be well regulated. If their blood and vital breath are regulated, their movements and actions will be well ordered. When blood and vital breath are well regulated and movements and actions are well ordered, there will be few disasters and harms. Indeed, those who are free from the troubles of boils and piles internally and incur no disasters from penalties and punishments externally, hold ghosts in deep contempt. Thus it is said: “When you use the Way to govern the world, ghosts will have no numinous powers.”

In a well-governed state, the people and ghostly spirits do not harm one another. Thus it is said: “It is not that ghosts are not spirits, but the spirits do not harm the people.”

When ghosts fall upon sick people, it is said that ghosts harm people.

When people drive ghosts away, it is said that people harm ghosts.

When the people defy the laws and ordinances, it is said that the people harm the ruler.

When the ruler punishes and chastises the people, it is said that the ruler harms the people.

If the people do not defy the laws, the ruler will not have to apply the punishments. If the ruler has no need to apply the punishments, it is said that the ruler does not harm the people. Thus it is said: “The sage, also, will not harm the people.” There exists no mutual harm between the ruler and the people or mutual injury between the people and ghosts. Thus it is said: “The two do not injure one another.”

If the people do not dare defy the laws, the ruler will not employ punishments and penalties inside [his state], while he will not strive to avail himself of goods and products [made] outside [his state]. If the ruler does not employ punishments and penalties inside [his state] and does not strive to avail himself of goods and products [made] outside [his state], the people will flourish. If the people flourish, their reserves will be plentiful. If the people flourish and their reserves are plentiful, they are said to “possess potency.” As a general rule, those who are called “cursed” are those who are bereft of hun and po souls and whose quintessential spirit is disordered. If quintessential spirit is disordered, they will have no potency. If ghosts do not inflict curses upon people, their hun and po souls will not leave [their bodies]. If their hun and po souls do not leave [their bodies], their quintessential spirit will not be disordered. If their quintessential spirit is not disordered, they are said to “possess potency.” If the ruler abounds with reserves, and the ghosts do not disorder his quintessential spirit, potency will develop to its utmost among the people. Thus it is said: “Since the two do not harm one another, their potency intermingles and returns home to them.”

“Jie Lao” 5 (Chen Qiyou 2000: 6.20.405–8)

[Wang Bi Laozi 46]

A ruler who possesses the Way is free of enmity from his neighbors and rivals outside [his state] and his beneficence saturates the people inside [his state]. Now a ruler who is free of enmity from his neighbors and rivals outside [his state] is a ruler who comports himself with propriety and righteousness in receiving the Lords of the Land. A ruler whose potency saturates the people inside [his state] is a ruler who regulates the peoples’ tasks by striving for the fundamentals. If the ruler who receives the Lords of the Land comports himself with propriety and righteousness, conflicts rarely arise. If the ruler regulates the peoples’ tasks by striving for the fundamentals, wastefulness and extravagance cease. As a general rule, the things for which horses are mostly used is to [carry] supplies of armor and weapons outside the state, while they are used for wasteful and extravagant purposes inside the state. Now a ruler who possesses the Way will rarely use armor and weapons outside the state while he will prohibit wastefulness and extravagance inside the state. Thus, the ruler has no need for horses to travel back and forth in warfare and the people have no need for horses to transport extravagant things to and from distant lands. Instead, the horses’ strength is preserved for agricultural pursuits. If the horses’ strength is preserved for agricultural pursuits, it will invariably be used for plowing the fields or hauling water to irrigate them. Thus it is said: “When the world has the Way, one relegates swift horses to fertilize [the fields].”

If the people’s ruler is not in possession of the Way, he will treat the people cruelly and brutally inside [his borders] while he will attack and deceive neighboring states outside [his borders]. If inside [his borders] he treats his people cruelly and brutally, their livelihood will be cut off. If outside [his borders] he attacks and deceives neighboring states, their troops will rise up repeatedly. If the peoples’ livelihood is cut off, their livestock diminishes. If troops rise up repeatedly, his officers and foot soldiers will be consumed. If livestock diminishes, his war-horses will become scarce. If officers and foot soldiers are consumed, his army will perish. If war-horses become scarce, his mares will be brought out to do battle. If his army perishes, his intimate servants will take up the defense. Horses are of great use to armies while [the word] “suburb” refers to their being close [to the capital]. Now that is why [under these circumstances], the ruler must supply mares and intimate servants to replenish the army. Thus it is said: “When the world is without the Way, war-horses breed in the suburbs.”

If people have desires, their plans and calculations will become confused. If plans and calculations become confused, desires will deepen. If desires deepen, the perverted mind will prevail. If the perverted mind prevails, undertakings will be led astray and will cut off. If undertakings are led astray and are cut off, misfortunes and difficulties arise. Looking at the matter from this perspective, misfortunes and difficulties are born of the perverted mind and the perverted mind is led by things that can be desired. Things that can be desired [of two] sorts:

if coming in [to the country], they entice good people to do evil;

if leaving [the county], they cause good people to suffer misfortunes.

If evil arises, it encroaches upon and weakens the ruler above. If misfortunes arrive, the people suffer many afflictions. Thus, things that can be desired encroach upon and weaken the ruler above, while they afflict the people below. To encroach upon and weaken the ruler above and afflict the people below is a grave crime indeed. Thus it is said: “There is no calamity greater than a things that can be desired.” This is why the sage is not enticed by the five colors nor is he sullied by lewd music. The enlightened ruler scorns amusements and addictions and avoids the lewd and the lascivious/playful trifles and dazzling beauties.

People have neither fur nor feathers. Unclad, they cannot resist the cold. Above they do not belong to heaven and below they do not cleave to the earth. Rather, they consider the stomach and intestines as their fundamental root because if they do not eat they cannot survive. This is why they cannot avoid possessing minds that desire material benefit. If they cannot eradicate this mind desirous of material benefit, they grow anxious. Therefore the sage wears just enough to resist cold and eats just enough to satiate hunger and so he is free from anxiety. Most people, however, are not like this. Whether you are as important as a regional lord or as unimportant as a person who merely possesses a surfeit of a thousand pieces of gold, you cannot eradicate the anxiety that comes along with the desire to obtain material benefit. Now the convict may receive a pardon and the criminal sentenced to death may gain a reprieve but those who are perplexed because they do not know contentment will live out their whole life without being released from such anxiety. Thus it is said: “There is no misfortune greater than not knowing contentment.”

Therefore if the desire for material benefit is excessive, there will be anxiety. If there is anxiety, illness will arise. If illness arises, wisdom will deteriorate. If wisdom deteriorates, you will lose the ability to measure and calculate. If you lose the ability to measure and calculate, your movements and actions will become haphazard. If your movements and actions become haphazard, disasters and harms will arrive. If disasters and harms arrive, illness will hamper you inside. If illness hampers you inside, painful diseases will spread to the outside. If painful diseases spread to the outside, cutting pain will infiltrate the regions of the stomach and intestines. If cutting pain infiltrates the regions of the stomach and intestines, your afflictions will become agonizing. If your afflictions become agonizing, you will retreat and upbraid yourself. Retreating and upbraiding yourself is born of the desire for material benefit. Thus it is said: “There is no disaster more sorrowful than desiring material benefit.”

“Jie Lao” 6 (Chen Qiyou 2000: 6.20.411–14)

[Wang Bi Laozi 14]

The Way:

Is what makes the myriad kinds of things so,

And what fixes the myriad principles of things.

[These] ordering principles are the patterns of completed things and the Way is the means by which all things are completed. Thus it is said: “The Way constitutes the ordering principles of the myriad things.”

Things have their ordering principles and cannot overlap with one another. Since things have ordering principles and cannot overlap with one another, ordering principles are the determinants of things. Each of the myriad things in the world possesses a different ordering principle. Since each of the myriad things in the world possesses a different ordering principle and the Way to the very last fixes the ordering principles of things, consequently [the Way] cannot but transform. Since the Way cannot but transform, it has no constant frame [of activity]. Since the Way has no constant frame [of activity],

Life and death have their endowments of qi because of it,

the myriad [kinds of] knowledge are deliberated because of it,

and the myriad [kinds of] affairs succeed or fail because of it.

Heaven obtains it and so is high;

Earth obtains it and so stores things away;

the Polar Star obtains it and so achieves its majesty;

the sun and the moon obtain it and so are constantly radiant;

the five constants obtain it and so maintain their positions;

the arrayed stars obtain it and so arrange their orbits;

the four seasons obtain it and so regulate the transformations of their qi,

Xuanyuan [i.e. the Yellow Thearch] obtained it and so ruled over the four quarters,

Master Red Pine [a famed immortal] obtained it and so lives as long as Heaven and Earth,

and the sages obtained it and so perfected cultural patterns and elaborate institutions because of it.

The Way shared in

the wisdom of Yao and Shun;

the madness of Jieyu;⁹

the destruction of [the tyrants] Jie and Zhòu;

and in the prosperity of [the sage kings] Tang and Wu.

Consider it near by, and it wanders to the four directions;

Consider it far away, and it is right by your side.

Consider it dark, and its brilliance is radiant and resplendent.

Consider it bright, and its materiality is dark and dim.

Yet

its achievements perfect the universe;

and its harmony transforms its thunder.

[Thus] all things in the world depend on the Way for its completion. As a general rule, the true character of the Way neither fixes [things] nor gives shape [to things]. It is weak and soft and accords with the seasons, and is mutually responsive to the ordering principles [of things].

The myriad things obtain it and so live; obtain it and so die.

The myriad affairs obtain it and so fail; obtain it and so succeed.

The Way is comparable to water.

If a drowning person drinks too much of it, he dies;

If a thirsty person drinks just enough of it, he lives.

It is comparable to a sword or a spear.

If a fool uses it to repay a grudge, ill fortune arises.

If the sage uses it to punish the tyrannical, good fortune results.

Thus [it is said]:¹⁰ “Obtaining it [you] die because of it; obtaining it [you] live because of it; obtaining it [you] fail because of it, obtaining it [you] succeed because of it.”¹¹

People rarely observe a living elephant. Yet if they come across the skeleton of a dead elephant, they examine the layout of the bones and envision it alive. Thus the means by which people imagine things is called “an elephant/an image.” Now, though the Way can be neither heard nor seen, the sage grasps its observable effects in order to surmise its form. Thus it is said: “This is called the form that lacks form, the image/elephant that lacks materiality.”

“Jie Lao” 7 (Chen Qiyou 2000: 6.20.414–15)

[Wang Bi Laozi 1]

As a general rule, ordering principles constitute the distinctions between

the square and the round;

the short and the long;

the coarse and the fine;

and the strong and the weak.

Thus, only after ordering principles have been determined, can you apprehend the Way. Thus, determinate principles include

existence and extinction,

life and death,

and prosperity and decline.

Now things that first exist and then become extinct, first live and then die, or that first prosper and then decline cannot be said to be eternal. Only that which is born with the severing and separation of Heaven and Earth and will neither die nor decline until Heaven and Earth disperse and disappear is called “eternal.” What is eternal has neither a changing location nor a definite principle, and is not inherent in an eternal place. This is why the eternal cannot be spoken of. The sage observes its mysterious emptiness and makes use of its comprehensive course [of activity in the world]. Compelled to give it a name he calls it “The Way” and only then was it possible to discuss it. Thus it is said: “The Way that can be spoken of is not the eternal Way.”

“Jie Lao” 8 (Chen Qiyou 2000: 6.20.416–17)

[Wang Bi Laozi 50]

People begin in life and end in death. To begin is called “to come forth to.” To end is called “to enter into.” Thus it is said: “We come forth to life and enter into death.”

The human body with its 360 joints, four limbs and nine apertures is essentially equipped. Four limbs plus nine apertures totals 13. The activity and quiescence of these 13 things are associated with life. To be associated with something is called “being a companion.” Thus it is said: “The companions of life number thirteen.”

When it comes to their death, these 13 revert back to becoming associated with the realm of death so that the companions of death also [are governed by the] number 13. Thus it is said: “The companions of life number thirteen. The companions of death number thirteen.”

As a general rule, people who live regarding life as life, certainly move. Yet movement ultimately leads to loss and if movement does not cease, losses do not cease. When losses do not cease, life is exhausted. The exhausting of life is called “death” so that the 13 all come to belong to the realm of death. Thus it is said: “And the people who cling to life as life and move, whose every movement leads them to the realm of death, also number thirteen.”

This is why the sage cherishes his quintessential spirit and prizes dwelling in tranquility. Otherwise the harm he would suffer would be greater than that inflicted by rhinos and tigers. Indeed rhinos and tigers have their definite habitats and their periods of activity and quiescence. Avoid their habitats and calculate their periods of activity and quiescence and you will evade the harm inflicted by rhinos and tigers. However, since people only know that rhinos and tigers possess horns and claws that inflict harm, but do not know that everything in the world possesses their [figurative] “horns and claws,” they are unable to evade the harm brought about by the myriad things of the world. How should this be discussed? When the seasonal rains fall and collect and the wide fields are empty and still, if you cross mountains or rivers at dawn or dusk, “the horns and claws” of wind and dew will harm you. When serving your superior, if you fail to be loyal, look lightly upon the prohibitions, or disobey the ordinances, then the “horns and claws” of punishments and laws will harm you. When living in the village, if you do not moderate your behavior, hating and loving without measure, then the “horns and claws” of fights and disputes will harm you. When your appetites and desires know no limit, and your activity and quiescence is not moderated, the “horns and claws” of boils and piles will harm you. When you grow fond of following your personal opinions and disregard the ordering principles of the Way, the “horns and claws” of nets and traps will harm you. Rhinos and tigers have their habitats and the myriad harms of the world have their sources. When you avoid their habitats and block up their sources, you will evade their various harms.

As a general rule, weapons and armor are the means by which you prepare against harm. Those who value life will be free of angry and contentious hearts even if they enter the army. Being free of an angry and contentious heart, they will have no use or desire to be prepared against harm. This is not only a reference to armies camped in the wilderness. When the sage wanders through the world, he does not harbor a heart [that desires to] harm others. Since he does not harbor a heart [that desires to] harm others, he is invariably free from others’ harm. Since he is invariably free from others’ harm, he need not prepare against others. Thus it is said: “When walking in the hills, he does not happen upon rhinos or tigers.” When he enters the mountains, he does not prepare himself against harm. Thus it is said: “When entering the army, he does not prepare himself with armor or weapons.” He is removed from all things that cause harm. Thus it is said: “Rhinos have no place to butt their horns. Tigers have no place to thrust their claws. Weapons have no place to lay their blades.”

To invariably suffer no harm if you do not make preparations against harm is an ordering principle of the Way [that is grounded in] Heaven and Earth. Since he embodies the Way of Heaven and Earth, it is said: “There is no realm of death in him.” When he moves there is no realm of death for him and so he is said to “excel at holding onto life.”

“Jie Lao” 9 (Chen Qiyou 2000: 6.20.416–17)

[Wang Bi Laozi 67]

Those who love their children treat their children compassionately;

those who value life treat their bodies compassionately;

those who prize achievements treat their affairs compassionately.

In tending her vulnerable children, the compassionate mother strives to bring about their wellbeing. In striving to bring about their wellbeing, she will endeavor to eradicate any misfortunes that may befall them. In eradicating any misfortune that may befall them, her reflections and considerations will be thorough. Her reflections and considerations being thorough, she will apprehend the ordering principles of affairs and will invariably achieve success. Invariably achieving success, she will not waiver in her actions. Not wavering is called “courage.” The sage approaches the myriad affairs in the world as the compassionate mother considers the well being of her vulnerable children and so he perceives the Way that must be carried out. Perceiving the Way that must be carried out, he is enlightened and in carrying out his various tasks he does not waiver. Not wavering is called “courage.” The ability not to waiver is born of compassion. Thus it is said: “It is because you are compassionate, that you can be courageous.”

The Duke of Zhou said: “When the freezing that brings on hibernation during the winter months is not substantial, the growth of the grasses and trees in spring and summer will not be luxuriant.” If Heaven and Earth cannot constantly waste and constantly expend, how much more is this the case if it comes to people. Therefore,

the myriad things invariably have their prosperity and decline;

the myriad affairs invariably have their rise and fall;

the dynastic states invariably have their civilian and military undertakings;

and official regulations invariably have their rewards and punishments.

Thus,

the wise scholar frugally utilizes his resources and so his family becomes wealthy;

the sagely person lovingly cherishes his spirit and so his essence prospers;

the people’s ruler gravely marshals his troops and so his people proliferate.

When the people proliferate, the state will become extensive. This is why there is praise and there is the statement: “It is because you are frugal, that you can be extensive.”

As a general rule, anything that has shape can be easily discriminated and distinguished. How should this be discussed? If it has shape, it may be short or long. Being short or long, it may be small or large. Being small or large, it may be square or round. Being square or round, it may be hard or soft. Being hard or soft, it may be light or heavy. Being light or heavy it may be white or black. [If something has a shape, it must have length; if it has length, it must have size; if it has size, it must have shape; if it has shape, it must have solidity; if it has solidity, it must have weight; if it has weight, it must have color.] Now length, size, shape, solidity, weight, and color are called ordering principles. Since ordering principles are fixed, things are easily discriminated. Therefore scholars who weigh public opinion, know to first debate issues within the great court before seeking to establish their opinions. Therefore if you desire to construct a square or circle, you must likewise first follow the compass and square, and then the achievements of your myriad undertakings will surely take form. Since the myriad things in the world all possess their compass and squares, the scholars who speak from public opinion plan according to and anticipate such compasses and squares. The sage thoroughly follows the compass and square of the myriad things in the world. Thus there is the expression: “He does not presume to be first in the world.”

If you do not presume to be first in the world, all your undertakings will be undertaken, all your achievements will be achieved, and your opinions will inevitably prevail over the age. Though you desire to be free of high office, would it be possible to realize such a desire? To occupy a high office is called “being a leader in completing affairs.” Thus it is said: “It is because you do not presume to be first in the world, that you can be a leader in completing affairs.”

Those who treat their children compassionately do not dare withhold clothing and food.

Those who treat their persons compassionately do not dare depart from laws and measures.

Those who love shapes do not dare abandon compass and square.

Therefore, if about to deploy troops, if you are compassionate toward the rank and file, you will vanquish the enemy in battle. If you are compassionate toward the instruments and implements of war, your city walls will be secure and stable. Thus it is said: “When compassionate in attacking, you will win and in defending, you will hold firm.”

If you can keep yourself whole and thoroughly follow the ordering principles of the myriad things of the world, you will inevitably enjoy a natural vitality. A natural vitality means a vital heart. Therefore the Way fully develops this vitality, as though relying on compassion to defend it. If your undertakings are always successful and everything you initiate is suitable to the circumstances, it is called a treasure. Thus it is said: “I have three treasures which I hold on to and treasure.”

“Jie Lao” 10 (Chen Qiyou 2000: 6.20.424–25)

[Wang Bi Laozi 53]

What the book refers to as “the great Way” means the orthodox way.

What it refers to as “going astray” means the heterodox way.

What it refers to as “narrow paths” means beautiful decorations.

Beautiful decorations are the allotments of the heterodox way. “The courts are swept very clean” means that litigations proliferate.

If litigations proliferate, the fields will become desolate. If the fields are desolate, the government granaries will become empty. If the government granaries are empty, the state will become impoverished. The state becomes impoverished but the people remain accustomed to extravagance and waste. If the people remain accustomed to extravagance and waste, the occupations that produce clothing and food will cease to exist. If the occupations that produce clothing and food cease to exist, the people will have no choice but to be deceptive and cunning in cheating others. If the people are deceptive and cunning in cheating others, they will come to know the colored and embroidered [clothing]. Knowing the embroidered and colored is referenced as “Clothed in embroidered and colored [garb].”

When litigations are numerous, if the granaries are empty, and if extravagance and waste become customary, the state will suffer injury as though pierced by a sharp sword. Therefore it is said: “At their waists they carry sharp swords.”

Those men who ornament their knowledge also injure the state, as their own families invariably become wealthy. Since their families invariably become wealthy, it states: “Their goods and possessions overflow.”

If the state has people like this, simple folks cannot help but imitate them without measure. Imitating them without measure, all kinds of petty thievery arise. Looking at the matter from this perspective, wherever great villains operate, petty thieves are sure to follow. Wherever great thieves take the lead, petty thieves are sure to join in. Indeed, the Yu is the lead musical instrument for the Five Notes. Therefore, if the Yu instrument leads off, the bells and lutes all follow. When the Yu instrument takes the lead, all the other instruments join in. Nowadays the great villains operate and it has become customary for the people to sing along with them. When it becomes customary for the people to sing along, petty thieves will surely join in. Thus: “Clothed in embroidered and colored [garb]. At their waists they carry sharp swords. They gorge themselves on food. Their possessions and goods overflow. They are what is called the Yu instrument of thievery.”

“Jie Lao” 11 (Chen Qiyou 2000: 6.20.428–29)

[Wang Bi Laozi 54]

People whether stupid or wise, never fail [to be able] to accept and reject [things]. Whether indifferent or tranquil, they never fail to understand the causes of ill and good fortune. But if people become caught up in their likes and dislikes and beguiled by extravagant things, only then do they change and become disordered. The reason that this is so is due to the fact that they are enticed by external things and disordered by their playful preferences. When indifferent they can ascertain the significance of rejecting and accepting and if secure they understand how to calculate ill and good fortune. Yet if playful preferences change them and external things entice them, they follow what entices them. Thus the expression “uprooted.”

Coming to a sage, however, this is not so. Once the sage establishes that which he rejects and accepts, although he may see things that he desires they are unable to entice him. Since he cannot be enticed it is said he is “not uprooted.” The sage is one with his emotions so that even though he may encounter things that are desirable, his spirit remains unperturbed. Since his spirit remains unperturbed it is called “not slipping away.” If as a son or grandson, you embody this way in order to preserve the ancestral temples from destruction this is called “sacrifice without end.”

The body accumulates vital essence to become potent,

the family accumulates possessions and property to become potent,

the village, state, and world, rely on their people to become potent.

Now if you regulate yourself, external things cannot disturb your quintessential spirit. Thus it is said: “If you cultivate it in your person, your potency will be genuine.”

“Genuine” refers to the stability of your potency. For those who manage the family, if useless things cannot disturb their calculations, their families will enjoy a surplus of goods. Thus it is said: “If you cultivate it in your family, your potency will overflow.”

When those who manage a village act on such regulation, those families who possess a surplus of goods will increase and multiply. Thus it is said: “If you cultivate it in your village, your potency will be long lasting.”

When those who manage states act on such regulation, those within the states who possess potency will increase and multiply. Thus it is said: “If you cultivate it in your state, your potency will be abundant.”

When those who rule the world act on such regulation, the lives of the common people will all benefit from his kindness. Thus it is said: “If you cultivate it in the world, your potency will be pervasive.”

Those who cultivate themselves by means of this [principle of regulation] will distinguish the Gentleman from the petty man. Each of those who manage villages, states, and oversee the world by means of this [principle of regulation] will judge production and consumption and never err, not a single time in 10,000. Thus it is said: “Use the individual to examine the individual; the family to examine the family; the village to examine the village; the state to examine the state; and the world to examine the world. How do I know that the world is so? By means of this.”

Han Feizi Chapter 21

“Yu Lao” 1 (Chen Qiyou 2000: 7.21.431–34)

[Wang Bi Laozi 46]

When the world has the Way, there are no anxieties or worries and so it is tranquil and couriers are not employed. Therefore it is said: “One relegates swift horses to fertilize [the fields].” When the world is without the Way, attacks and battles do not end and mutual defense persists several years without ceasing, until the troops do not return home though their armor and helmets teem with lice and gnats, though swallows and sparrows nest in their curtains and tents. Therefore it is said: “War-horses breed in the suburbs.”

A man from Di presented fox furs with thin haired tails and leopard fur with black spots to Duke Wen of Jin [r. 636–628 BCE]. Duke Wen accepted the gifts but heaved a sigh and said: “These [animals] brought retribution on themselves due to the beauty of their hides.” Now rulers who brought on their own retribution due to their reputations, such a one was King Yan of Xu.¹² Those who brought on their own retribution due to their cities and territories, such were [the rulers of] Yu and Guo.¹³ Therefore it is said: “There is no transgression greater than having something that can be coveted.”

Earl Zhi [d. 453 BCE] annexed the territories of Fan and Zhonghang and attacked Zhao without cease. Hán and Wei rebelled against Earl Zhi. His troops suffered defeat at Jinyang and he met his death to the east of Gaoliang. In the end [his territory] was divided up and his skull was lacquered and made into a drinking vessel. Therefore it is said: “There is no misfortune greater than not knowing contentment.”

The Lord of Yu coveted Quchan’s steed and Chuiji’s jade disk. He did not heed Gong Zhiqi and so his state was ruined and he met his death. Therefore it is said: “There is no disaster more sorrowful than desiring to obtain things.”

A state takes surviving as the norm, whether hegemon or king, it is permissible.

A person takes living as the norm, whether wealthy or noble, it is permissible.¹⁴

If you do not allow your desires to cause you harm, then the state will not be lost and you will not suffer death. Therefore it is said: “To know contentment is to be content.”

“Yu Lao” 2 (Chen Qiyou 2000: 7.21.435)

[Wang Bi Laozi 54]

When King Zhuang of Chu [d. 591 BCE] was victorious in war, he held a hunt at Heyang. Upon his return, he rewarded [the Prime Minister,] Sunshu Ao. Sunshu Ao then requested that he be given the sandy and stony land near the Han River. According to the laws of the Chu state, gifts to subjects are confiscated after two generations, however the lands of Sunshu Ao alone remained intact. The reason his land was not confiscated was because it was barren. Accordingly nine generations sacrificed without interruption.¹⁵ Therefore when it says:

“What is firmly established will not be uprooted;

What is firmly embraced will not slip away.

Your sons and grandsons consequently will sacrifice generation after generation without end,”

it refers to Sunshu Ao.

“Yu Lao” 3 (Chen Qiyou 2000: 7.21.436)

[Wang Bi Laozi 26]

When control rests in your person, you are called weighty. When you do not leave the throne, you are called tranquil.

When weighty, you can direct the light.

When tranquil, you can direct the restless.

Therefore it is said:

“The heavy is the root of the light;

The tranquil is the lord of the restless.”

Therefore it is said: “The superior man travels all day without becoming separated from his heavy baggage cart.”

The state is the ruler’s “heavy baggage cart.” When Zhufu [i.e. “Master Father,” the sobriquet taken by King Wuling of Zhao (r. 325–295 BCE) after ceding the throne to his son] abdicated his state while still alive, he “became separated from his heavy baggage cart.” Therefore, though he enjoyed the music of Dai and Yunzhong, ultimately he had already lost Zhao. Zhufu was a ruler of a 10,000 chariot state yet he considered himself “lighter” than the empire. When the ruler lacks strategic advantage (shi), he is said to be “light.” When he leaves the throne, he is said to be “restless.” This is why he lived as a hostage and subsequently died.¹⁶ Therefore when it says:

“If light, you will lose your subjects.

If restless, you will lose your lordship,”

it refers to Zhufu.

“Yu Lao” 4 (Chen Qiyou 2000: 7.21.437–39)

[Wang Bi Laozi 36]

Positional advantage (shi) that is weighty is the ruler’s the “abyss”. To rule the people, your positional advantage must be weightier than that which rests with your ministers. If you lose it, you cannot regain it.

When Duke Jian [of Qi, r. 484–481 BCE] lost [his positional advantage] to Tian Cheng [the minister who usurped his throne] and the Duke of Jin lost it to the Six Ministers,¹⁷ their states were destroyed and they suffered death. Therefore it is said: “Fish cannot be snatched from the deep abyss.”

Rewards and punishments are the efficacious instruments of the state.

If they rest with the ruler, they control the ministers;

if they rest with the ministers, they defeat the ruler.

If the ruler reveals his rewards, the ministers will minimize them so as to enhance their own reputation for kindness;

if the ruler reveals his punishments, the ministers will exaggerate them so as to enhance their own reputation for awe inspiring authority.

If the ruler reveals his rewards, the ministers will make use of his strategic advantage;

if the ruler reveals his punishments, the ministers will avail themselves of his awe inspiring authority.

Therefore it is said: “The efficacious instruments of state cannot be revealed to others.”

King [Goujian] of Yue [r. 496–465 BCE] entered into servitude in [the state of] Wu and showed its ruler how to attack Qi so as to exhaust Wu. Subsequently the troops of Wu vanquished Qi’s men at Ailing; stretched as far as the Jiang and Qi Rivers; and showed their strength as far as Yellow Pool. Thus the King of Yue was able to take control at Five Lakes [where he defeated Wu]. Therefore it is said:

“If you wish to shrink it, you must certainly stretch it;

if you wish to weaken it, you must certainly strengthen it.”

When Duke Xian of Jin [r. 676–651 BCE] was about to attack Yu, he offered a jade disk and a steed;

when Earl Zhi was about to attack the Qiu You, he offered a grand chariot.¹⁸

Therefore it is said:

“If you wish to take something from someone, you must certainly give something to someone.”

To initiate an undertaking in the formless realm and to accomplish great things in the world is called “subtle discernment.” To remain insignificant and weak and value humbling one’s person is called “the weak defeating the strong.”

“Yu Lao” 5 (Chen Qiyou 2000: 7.21.440–41)

[Wang Bi Laozi 63]

Among the category [of things] that has form, what is significant invariably arises from what was insignificant.

Among things that endure, what is abundant invariably arises from what was scarce.

Therefore it is said:

“The difficult undertakings in the world evolve from what is easy;

the great undertakings in the world evolve from what is small.”

This is why those who desire to control things must attend to the “minute.” Therefore it is said:

“Plan for the difficult while it is easy;

Act on the great while it is small.”

A dike ten thousand feet long will crumble from the holes bored by tiny termites;

a hall one hundred feet square will burn to the ground from the stray sparks that leap through a chimney crack.

Thus it is said:

“Bai Gui ¹⁹ traversed the dikes, making sure to plug its holes;

old men are cautious of sparks, making sure to plaster chimney cracks.”

This is why

Bai Gui never encountered hardships due to flooding;

old men never encounter disasters due to fire.

These are both cases of taking precautions against things when they are still easy in order to avoid difficulties and paying attention to things when they are still minute in order to prevent them from becoming great.

Bian Que [a famed physician] once had an audience with Duke Huan of Cai.²⁰ After standing around for some time, Bian Que said: “My lord has a disease which lies in the pores of his skin. If it is not treated, I fear it will spread deeper [into the body].”

“I am not sick,” replied Duke Huan. Bian Que departed and Duke Huan remarked: “Physicians love to take credit for curing people who are not sick!”

Ten days later, Bian Que again had an audience and said: “My lord’s disease has spread to the flesh and skin. If it is not treated, it will spread still deeper.” Duke Huan did not respond. Bian Que left. The Duke of Huan was displeased again.

Ten days later, Bian Que had another audience with the duke and said: “My lord’s disease has spread to the intestines and stomach. If it is not treated, it will go still deeper.” Again Duke Huan did not respond. Bian Que left and once again Duke Huan was displeased.

Ten days later, gazing from afar at Duke Huan, Bian Que retreated and ran away. Consequently, the duke sent someone to inquire about [his behavior]. Bian Que explained: “When the disease lies in the pores, it can be treated with hot poultices. When the disease lies in the flesh and skin it can be treated with metal or stone needles. When the disease lies in the intestines and stomach, it can be treated with well-boiled medicines. But when the disease lies in the marrow of the bones, what can even the likes of the Commissioner of Life do about it? Presently the disease lies in the bone marrow. For this reason your servant has no more advice to give.”

Five days later, Duke Huan fell ill. He sent someone to look for Bian Que, but he had already fled to the state of Qin. Duke Huan subsequently died.

For this reason, when treating diseases, good physicians attack them when they are still in the pores of the skin. This means that they manage things when they are still inconsequential. Therefore it is said:

“The sage begins to attend to things early on.”

“Yu Lao” 6 (Chen Qiyou 2000: 7.21.444)

[Wang Bi Laozi 64]

In ancient times, when Prince Chong’er [i.e. Duke Wen] of Jin was fleeing, he passed through the state of Zheng. The ruler of Zheng failed to treat him according to the proper etiquette. Shuzhan remonstrated, saying: “This is a worthy prince. If Your Highness treats him generously [now] you will be able to curry his favor [in the future].” The Lord of Zheng did not heed his advice. Again, Shuzhan admonished him saying: “If Your Highness is unwilling to treat him generously then it would be best to murder him and avoid a calamity in the future”. Again, the Lord of Zheng did not heed his advice. When the prince returned home to the state of Jin, he raised troops, attacked Zheng, roundly defeating it and capturing eight of its cities.

When Duke Xian of Jin hoped by using the jade disk of Chuiji to obtain free passage from [the state of] Yu to attack [the state of] Guo. The Great Officer Gong Zhiji admonished him, saying: “You cannot. When the lips are gone, the teeth grow cold. Yu and Guo must rescue one another, not because they want to mutually curry favor, but because if Jin destroys Guo today, tomorrow Yu will follow on its heels to ruin”. The Lord of Yu did not listen. He accepted the jade and granted [Jin] free passage. The [ruler of Jin] took Guo and on his return he attacked Yu.

These two ministers both struggled with [the illnesses of state] when still at the “pores of the skin” but their rulers did not heed their advice. Though Shuzhan and Gong Zhiji were the calling crows of Yu and Guo, because their rulers did not listen, consequently Zheng was destroyed and Yu was annihilated.

Therefore it is said:

“What is secure is easily maintained,

What is not yet ominous is easily forestalled.”

“Yu Lao” 7 (Chen Qiyou 2000: 7.21.445–48)

[Wang Bi Laozi 52 and 71]

Long ago, when Zhòu crafted ivory chopsticks, [his uncle] the Viscount of Ji grew alarmed. He considered the fact that ivory chopsticks would not be used with earthen wares but with cups made of jade or of rhinoceros horns. Ivory chop sticks and jade cups would not go with the soup made of beans and coarse greens but with the meat of long-haired buffaloes and unborn leopards. Those who eat meat of long-haired buffaloes and unborn leopards would not wear short hemp clothes and eat in a thatched house but would put on nine layers of embroidered dresses and move to live in magnificent mansions and on lofty terraces. [Therefore he said:] “I fear how this will end, therefore I tremble at what has begun.”

In the space of 5 years, Zhòu made gardens of flesh, set up the roasting pillar, walked upon mounds of distiller’s grains, and gazed over pools of wine. Zhòu consequently met his demise. Thus, by beholding the ivory chop sticks the Viscount of Ji predicted the impending catastrophe that was to engulf the empire. Therefore it is said: “Seeing what is small is called insight.”

When Goujian entered into servitude in Wu, he personally wielded shield and spear and acted as the king’s forward scout [literally the one who went ahead of the horse and chariot of the king].²¹ Thus [subsequently] he was able to kill [King] Fuchai [of Wu] at Gusu. Likewise, when King Wu [of Zhou]²² was disgraced at Jade Gate, his facial expression did not change and so [subsequently] King Wu took Zhòu prisoner at Muye. Therefore it is said: “Abiding in softness is called strength.”

The hegemony of the King of Yue was due to not looking upon surrender as a flaw;

The kingship of King Wu was due to not looking upon disgrace as a flaw.

Therefore it is said: “The sage’s not being flawed is because he does not treat things as flawed. This is why he is flawless.”

“Yu Lao” 8 (Chen Qiyou 2000: 7.21.449–51)

[Wang Bi Laozi 64]

A country bumpkin from Song once came upon a jade stone that he presented to Zihan [an official known for his incorruptibility]. Zihan refused to accept it. The country bumpkin then said: “This is a treasure. It is suitable to be made into the utensil of a gentleman and certainly is not suitable for the use of such a rustic as me.” Zihan replied: “You regard the jade to be a treasure but I regard refusing to accept it to be equally precious.” Thus though the country bumpkin desired the jade Zihan did not. Therefore it is said: “Desire not to desire and do not value goods that are hard to obtain.”

Wang Shou was travelling with a bundle of books on his back when he bumped into Xu Feng on the road in Zhou. Feng remarked: “Any undertaking is a purposeful act (wei); purposeful acts are generated by the times so that those who possess knowledge avoid permanent/constant undertakings. Books consist of words; words are generated by knowledge so that those who possess knowledge do not prize keeping books. Why then, should you alone burden yourself with them?” Hearing this, Wang Shou burned the books and danced with joy. Thus, those who possess knowledge do rely upon words to discuss their teachings; while the truly knowledgeable do not fill their libraries with books. This is what our age has passed by yet Wang Shou returned to it. Such is learning to be without learning. Therefore it is said: “Learn to not learn and return to what the multitudes pass by.”

Now things possess their constant dispositions. Follow along and avail yourself of them and you will thereby direct them. If you follow along with the dispositions of things, then

when quiescent, you will be established in Potency;

when in motion, you will be compliant with the Way.

A native of Song made a mulberry leaf out of ivory for his ruler. It took 3 years for him to complete it. Having a stem and veins, wide and narrow, a tiny bud and colorful gloss, it was mixed in amongst real mulberry leaves and [no one] could tell the difference. In the end, on account of his skill this man was endowed with a bounty in the state of Song.

When Liezi heard of this he remarked: “Suppose it were to take Heaven and Earth 3 years to make a leaf; then there would be few things that had leaves.” Therefore, if you do not avail yourself of the natural proclivities of Heaven and Earth but rather rely on one man or if you do not follow the various enumerations of the ordering principles of the Way but rather study the knowledge of one man, you will in every case be following the conduct of the singular mulberry leaf. Therefore, if you farm in winter, even Lord Millet will not be able to turn out crops; rich harvests in years of abundance even bondmen and bondmaids could not spoil. Therefore, if you depend on the strength of one man, then even Lord Millet will not be sufficient to the task; but if you follow what is natural (ziran), then even [the farming of] bondmen and bondmaids will yield a surplus. Therefore it is said: “Rely on the naturalness of the myriad creatures and do not dare to act.”

“Yu Lao” 9 (Chen Qiyou 2000: 7.21.449–51)

[Wang Bi Laozi 47]

The orifices are the doors and windows of one’s spiritual illumination. When the ears and eyes are exhausted by sound and color, one’s quintessential spirit will be exhausted by external attractions. Therefore within you will lack a master. When you lack a master inside your body, then ill and good fortune will pile up like hills and mountains without your being aware of it. Therefore it is said:

“Without going out your door, you can know the whole world;

Without peering out your window, you can know the Way of Heaven.”

Lord Xiang of Zhao [d. 425 BCE] studied charioteering from Wang Yuqi.²³ All at once he started racing with Yuqi. He changed his horses three times but three times he lagged behind. Lord Xiang then remarked: “You have taught me how to drive but the course is not yet complete.” Yuqi responded: “The course has finished, but the fault lies in the way it is applied. Generally speaking, what is important in driving is to fix the bodies of the horse firmly to the carriage and the mind of the driver to the horses. Then you can drive fast and far. Now, Your Highness, whenever behind wants to get ahead of your servant and whenever ahead is afraid of lagging behind your servant. Inevitably when you run a race you will be either ahead or behind others. Whether ahead or behind if Your Highness is fixated on your servant, how can Your Highness keep the horses under control? This was the reason why Your Highness lagged behind.”

Duke Sheng of Bo, preoccupied with his plans of rebellion, left the court and was standing alone when he picked up a horsewhip upside down and pierced his chin. Though his blood flowed all over the ground, he was not conscious of it. When a native of Zheng learned of this, he said: “If one forgets one’s chin, what is there that one does not forget!” Therefore it is said:

“The farther one goes,

the less one knows.”

This means that if your intelligence penetrates afar, you will miss what is at hand. This is why the sage has no definite destination, but can know both far and near. Therefore it is said: “Know by not journeying.” Therefore it is said: “Understand by not looking.”

Follow the seasons to initiate your undertakings. Accord with the inherent qualities of things to establish your achievements. Employ the abilities of the myriad things to obtain benefits for the ruler. Therefore it is said: “Accomplish by not doing.”

“Yu Lao” 10 (Chen Qiyou 2000: 7.21.456–57)

[Wang Bi Laozi 41]

King Zhuang of Chu had been overseeing his administration for 3 years but he neither issued any decrees nor implemented any policies. One day when the Commander of the Right was accompanying the king in his carriage, he spoke the following veiled words to him: “There is a bird which has taken up a perch on a hillock to the south. For 3 years it has not beaten its wings, taken flight, or cried out in song. It is silent and without sound. How can this be called a ‘bird’?” The king replied: “For 3 years it has not taken flight for it wishes to allow for the growth of its feathers and wings. It has not taken flight or cried out in song for it wishes to observe the tendencies of the people. Although it has not taken flight, when it does, it will certainly penetrate the heavens. Although it has not cried out in song, when it does, it will certainly amaze everyone. Let it go. I understand your message.”

Within half a year, the king personally attended to his administration whereupon he abolished ten policies and established nine; punished five chief officials and promoted six scholars so that the state became greatly ordered. Meanwhile, he dispatched troops to attack the state of Qi and won victory at Xuzhou. He then defeated the state of Jin at Heyong and called together the lords of the land at Song, subsequently establishing his hegemony over the world. King Zhuang never accomplished good deeds in a small way and so established a great reputation; he did not reveal his intentions prematurely and so accomplished great things. Therefore it is said:

“The great vessel takes long to reach completion;

the great note rarely sounds.”

“Yu Lao” 11 (Chen Qiyou 2000: 7.21.457–48)

[Wang Bi Laozi 33]

King Zhuang of Chu wished to attack Yue when Duzi admonished him, saying; “Why does Your Highness wish to attack Yue?” [The king] replied: “Its government is in disarray and its troops are weak.” Duzi responded: “Your humble servant is fearful of such a plan. Your Highness’s wisdom is like the eyes; they can see beyond 100 paces but cannot see their eyelashes. Since Your Highness’s troops have been roundly defeated by the states of Qin and Jin, Chu has lost a territory of several hundred li. These are instances of weakened troops. Zhuang Qiao haughtily engages in banditry within your borders and your officials are unable to stop him. These are instances of governance in disarray. Thus the chaos and weakness of Your Highness is no less that of Yue, yet Your Highness desires to attack Yue. This is a case of Your Highness’s wisdom resembling the eyes.” Upon hearing this, the king abandoned his plans.

Therefore the challenges of knowing do not lie in understanding others, they lie in understanding oneself. Therefore it is said: “Understanding oneself is called clarity.”

When Zixia paid a visit to Zengzi [both famous disciples of Confucius], Zengzi inquired: “Why have you become so plump?” Zixia replied: “I have recently been victorious in battle.” Zixia responded: “Pray tell what do you mean?” Zixia said: “Whenever I retired to observe the righteous principles of the former kings I reveled in it but when I emerged to observe the pleasures of the wealthy and noble I reveled in that too. These two have waged a battle in my breast. When I do not yet know which will be victorious I grow lean. Just now the righteous principles of the former kings have won out so I have grown plump.”

Hence the challenges of the will do not lie in conquering others they lie in conquering oneself. Therefore it is said: “Conquering oneself is called strength.”

“Yu Lao” 12 (Chen Qiyou 2000: 7.21.460)

[Wang Bi Laozi 27]

In the State of Zhou there was a jade tablet. King Zhòu sent Jiao Ge to ask for it. King Wen did not give it to him. Later, Bi Zhong [a sycophantic minister of King Zhòu] came for it and King Wen gave it to him. This was due to the fact that Jiao Ge was worthy while Bi Zhong was unscrupulous. Because Zhou hated to see a worthy obtain his ambition, he gave the tablet to Bi Zhong. King Wen raised up the Grand Duke from the banks of the Wei River because he respected him, and he gave the jade tablet to Bi Zhong because he loved him. Therefore it is said:

“Not prizing his teacher;

Not cherishing his inherent substance;

Though knowledgeable, he is greatly bewildered.

This is called the essential mystery.”