Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in
Book cover

Neurodevelopmental Disabilities pp 227–247Cite as

Medical Management of Cerebral Palsy

  • Chapter
  • First Online:

Abstract

Cerebral palsy is a disorder of motor control due to a static lesion of the developing brain. It was described almost 150 years ago and is quite familiar to both the lay and the medical communities. Continuing advances in our understanding of the causes and treatment of this heterogeneous disorder, when broadly understood and applied, will allow more children and adults with cerebral palsy to reach their full potential. This chapter reviews the definition, clinical presentation, and medical management of cerebral palsy.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution.

Chapter
USD   29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD   129.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Hardcover Book
USD   169.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Learn about institutional subscriptions

References

  1. Bax M, Goldstein M, Rosenbaum P, Leviton A, Paneth N, Dan B, et al. Proposed definition and classification of cerebral palsy. Dev Med Child Neurol. 2005;47:571–6.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  2. Paneth N, Hong T, Korzeniewski S. The descriptive epidemiology of cerebral palsy. Clin Perinatol. 2006;33(2):251–67.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  3. Paneth N. Cerebral palsy in term infants – birth or before birth? J Pediatr. 2001;138:791–2.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  4. Back S. Perinatal white matter injury: the changing spectrum of pathology and emerging insights into pathogenic mechanisms. Ment Retard Dev Disabil Res Rev. 2006;12(2):129–40.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  5. Nelson K. Can we prevent cerebral palsy? N Engl J Med. 2003;349(18):1765–9.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  6. D’Eugenio D, Slagle T, Mettelman B, Gross SJ. Developmental outcome of preterm infants with transient neuromotor abnormalities. Am J Dis Child. 1993;147:570–4.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  7. Nelson KB, Ellenberg JH. Children who “outgrew” cerebral palsy. Pediatrics. 1982;69(5):529–36.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  8. Wu YW, Lindan CE, Henning LH, Yoshida CK, Fullerton HJ, Ferriero DM, et al. Neuroimaging abnormalities in infants with congenital hemiparesis. Pediatr Neurol. 2006;35(3):191–6.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  9. Little WJ. On the influence of abnormal parturition, difficult labour, premature birth, and asphyxia neonatorum on the mental and physical conditions of the child, especially in relation to deformities. Trans Obstet Soc Long. 1862;3:293–344.

    Google Scholar 

  10. Jan M. Misdiagnoses in children with dopa-responsive dystonia. Pediatr Neurol. 2004;31:298–303.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  11. Bass N. Cerebral palsy and neurodegenerative disease. Curr Opin Pediatr. 1999;11:504–7.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  12. Ashwal S. Practice parameter: diagnostic assessment of the child with cerebral palsy: report of the quality standards subcommittee of the American academy of neurology and the practice committee of the child neurology society. Neurology. 2004;62(6):851–63.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  13. Yin R. Magnetic resonance imaging findings in cerebral palsy. J Paediatr Child Health. 2000;36(2):139–44.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  14. Krägeloh-Mann I, Petersen D, Hagberg G, Vollmer B, Hagberg B, Michaelis R. Bilateral spastic cerebral palsy – MRI pathology and origin. Analysis from a representative series of 56 cases. Dev Med Child Neurol. 1995;37(5):379–97.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  15. Woodward LJ, Anderson PJ, Austin NC, Howard K, Inder TE. Neonatal MRI to predict neurodevelopmental outcomes in preterm infants. N Engl J Med. 2006;355:685–94.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  16. Miller SP, Shevell MI, Patenaude Y, O’Gorman AM. Neuromotor spectrum of periventricular leukomalacia in children born at term. Pediatr Neurol. 2000;23(2):155–9.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  17. Palisano R, Rosenbaum P, Walter S, Russell D, Wood E, Galuppi B. Development and reliability of a system to classify gross motor function in children with cerebral palsy. Dev Med Child Neurol. 1997;39:214–23.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  18. Palisano RJ, Cameron D, Rosenbaum PL, Walter SD, Russell D. Stability of the gross motor function classification system. Dev Med Child Neurol. 2006;48:424–8.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  19. McCormick A, Brien M, Plourde J, Wood E, Rosenbaum P, McLean J. Stability of the gross motor function classification system in adults with cerebral palsy. Dev Med Child Neurol. 2007;49:265–9.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  20. Strauss D, Shavelle R, Reynolds R, Rosenbloom L, Day S. Survival in cerebral palsy in the last 20 years: signs of improvement? Dev Med Child Neurol. 2007;49:86–92.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  21. Hemming K, Hutton J, Pharoah P. Long-term survival for a cohort of adults with cerebral palsy. Dev Med Child Neurol. 2006;48:90–5.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  22. Arango P. Families, clinicians, and children and youth with special healthcare needs: a bright future. Pediatr Ann. 2008;37(4):212–22.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  23. Stanger M, Oresic S. Rehabilitation approaches for children with cerebral: overview. J Child Neurol. 2003;18:S79–88.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  24. Charles JR, Wolf SL, Schneider JA, Gordon AM. Efficacy of a child-friendly form of constraint-induced movement therapy in hemiplegic cerebral palsy: a randomized control trial. Dev Med Child Neurol. 2006;48:635–42.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  25. Sterba J. Does horseback riding therapy or therapist-directed hippotherapy rehabilitate children with cerebral palsy? Dev Med Child Neurol. 2007;49:68–73.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  26. Kelly M, Darrah J. Aquatic exercise for children with cerebral palsy. Dev Med Child Neurol. 2005;47:838–42.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  27. Dodd K, Taylor N, Graham H. A randomized clinical trial of strength training in young people with cerebral palsy. Dev Med Child Neurol. 2003;45:652–7.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  28. Morris C. Orthotic management of cerebral palsy. Dev Med Child Neurol. 2007;49:791–6.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  29. Terjesen T, Lange J, Steen H. Treatment of scoliosis with spinal bracing in quadriplegic cerebral palsy. Dev Med Child Neurol. 2000;42:448–54.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  30. Odding E, Roebroeck M, Stam H. The epidemiology of cerebral palsy: incidence, impairments and risk factors. Disabil Rehabil. 2006;28(4):183–91.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  31. Delgado MR, Riela AR, Mills J, Pitt A, Browne R. Discontinuation of antiepileptic drug treatment after two seizure-free years in children with cerebral palsy. Pediatrics. 1996;97(2):192–7.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  32. Ajlouni A, Shorman A, Daoud AS. The efficacy and side effects of topiramate on refractory epilepsy in infants and young children: a multi-center clinical trial. Seizure. 2005;14(7):459–63.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  33. Loring DW, Measor KJ. Cognitive side effects of antiepileptic drugs in children. Neurology. 2004;62(6):872–7.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  34. Stevenson R, Conaway M, Chumlea W. Growth and health in children with moderate-to-severe cerebral palsy. Pediatrics. 2006;118(3):1010–8.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  35. Cronk C, Stallings V. Growth in children with cerebral palsy. Ment Retard Dev Disabil Res Rev. 1997;3:129–37.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  36. Spender QW, Cronk CE, Charney EB, Stallings VA. Assessment of linear growth of children with cerebral palsy: use of alternative measures to height of length. Dev Med Child Neurol. 1989;31:206–14.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  37. Sanders K, Cox K, Cannon R. Growth response to enteral feeding by children with cerebral palsy. JPEN J Parenter Enteral Nutr. 1990;14(1):23–6.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  38. Bar-Or O. Pathophysiological factors which limit the exercise capacity of the sick child. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 1986;18(3):276–82.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  39. Lazarus R, Colditz G, Berkey CS, Speizer FE. Effects of body fat on ventilatory function in children and adolescents: cross-sectional findings from a random population sample of school children. Pediatr Pulmonol. 1997;24(3):187–94.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  40. Reilly S, Skuse D, Poblete X. Prevalence of feeding problems and oral motor dysfunction in children with cerebral palsy: a community survey. J Pediatr. 1996;129:877–82.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  41. Spiroglou K, Xinias I, Karatzas N. Gastric emptying in children with cerebral palsy and gastroesophageal reflux. Pediatr Neurol. 2004;31(3):177–82.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  42. Rogers B, Arvedson J, Buck G, Smart P, Msall M. Characteristics of dysphagia in children with cerebral palsy. Dysphagia. 1994;9(1):69–73.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  43. Wright RE, Wright FR, Carson CA. Videofluoroscopic assessment in children with severe cerebral palsy presenting with dysphagia. Pediatr Radiol. 1996;26(10):720–2.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  44. Yang WT, Loveday EJ, Metreweli C. Ultrasound assessment of swallowing in malnourished disabled children. Br J Radiol. 1997;70(838):992–4.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  45. Del Giudice E, Staiano A, Capano G. Gastrointestinal manifestations in children with cerebral palsy. Brain Dev. 1999;21(5):307–11.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  46. El-Serag HB, Gilger M. Extraesophageal associations of gastroesophageal reflux disease in children without neurological defects. Gastroenterology. 2001;121(6):1294–9.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  47. Su JM, Tsamtsouris A, Laskou M. Gastroesophageal reflux in children with cerebral palsy and its relationship to erosion of primary and permanent teeth. J Mass Dent Soc. 2003;52(2):20–4.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  48. Samdon-Fang L, Buter C, O’Donnell M. Gastrostomy for CP 20. Dev Med Child Neurol. 2003;45(6):415–26.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  49. Vernon-Roberts A, Sullivan PB. Fundoplication versus post-operative medication for gastroesophageal reflux in children with neurological impairment undergoing gastrostomy. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2007;(1):CD006151.

    Google Scholar 

  50. Park ES, Park CI, Cho SR, Na SI, Cho YS. Colonic transit time and constipation in children with spastic cerebral palsy. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 2004;85(3):453–6.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  51. Loening-Baucke V. Urinary incontinence and urinary tract infection and their resolution with treatment of chronic constipation of childhood. Pediatrics. 1997;100:228–32.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  52. Bandla HP, Davis SH, Hopkins NE. Lipoid pneumonia: a silent complication of mineral oil aspiration. Pediatrics. 1999;103(2):E19.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  53. Wilkinson DJ, Baikie G, Berkowitz RG, Reddihough DS. Awake upper airway obstruction in children with spastic quadriplegic cerebral palsy. J Paediatr Child Health. 2006;42:44–8.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  54. Kushida CA, Littner MR, Morgenthaler T, Alessi CA, Bailey D, Coleman J Jr, et al. Practice parameters for the indications for polysomnography and related procedures: an update for 2005. Sleep. 2005;28(4):499–521.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  55. Banjar HH. Pediatric scoliosis and the lung. Saudi Med J. 2003;24(9):957–63.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  56. Stott NS, Piedrahita L. Effects of surgical adductor releases for hip subluxation in cerebral palsy: an AACPDM evidence report. Dev Med Child Neurol. 2004;46:628–45.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  57. Morton RE, Scott B, McClelland V. Dislocation of the hips in children with bilateral spastic cerebral palsy, 1985–2000. Dev Med Child Neurol. 2006;48:555–8.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  58. McCarthy JJ, D’Andrea LP, Betz RR, Clements DH. Scoliosis in the child with cerebral palsy. J Am Acad Orthop Surg. 2006;14(6):367–75.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  59. Gericke T. Postural management for children with cerebral palsy: consensus statement. Dev Med Child Neurol. 2006;48:24–4.

    Google Scholar 

  60. Drvaric DM, Roberts JM, Burke SW, King AG, Flaterman K. Gastroesophageal evaluation in totally involved cerebral palsy patients. J Pediatr Orthop. 1987;7(2):187–90.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  61. Jevsevar DS, Karlin LI. The relationship between preoperative nutritional status and complications after an operation for scoliosis in patients who have cerebral palsy. J Bone Joint Surg Am. 1993;75(6):880–4.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  62. Henderson R, Kairall J, Abbas A. Predicting low bone density in children and young adults with quadriplegic cerebral palsy. Dev Med Child Neurol. 2004;46:416–9.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  63. Plotkin H, Coughlin S, Kreikemeier R. Low doses of pamidronate to treat osteopenia in children with severe cerebral palsy: a pilot study. Dev Med Child Neurol. 2006;48:709–12.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  64. Sanger T, Delgado M, Gaebler-Spira D. Classification and definition of disorders causing hypertonia in childhood. Pediatrics. 2003;11:e89–97.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  65. Pin T, Dyke P, Chan M. The effectiveness of passive stretching in children with cerebral palsy. Dev Med Child Neurol. 2006;48:855–62.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  66. Jefferson R. Botulinum toxin in the management of cerebral palsy. Dev Med Child Neurol. 2004;46:491–9.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  67. Gooch JL, Patton CP. Combining botulinum toxin and phenol to manage spasticity in children. Arch Phys Med Rehabil. 2004;85(7):1121–4.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  68. O’Donnell M, Armstrong R. Pharmacologic interventions for management of spasticity in cerebral palsy. Ment Retard Dev Disabil Res Rev. 1997;3:204–11.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  69. McLaughlin J, Bjornson K, Temkin N, Steinbok P, Wright V, Reiner A, et al. Selective dorsal rhizotomy: metaanalysis of three randomized controlled trials. Dev Med Child Neurol. 2002;44:17–25.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  70. Hoving M, van Raak E, Palmans LJ, Sleypen FA, Fles JS, et al. Intrathecal baclofen in children with spastic cerebral palsy: a double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled, dose-finding study. Dev Med Child Neurol. 2007;49:654–9.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  71. Sanger TD, Bastian A, Brunstrom J. Prospective open-label clinical trial of trihexyphenidyl in children with secondary dystonia due to cerebral palsy. J Child Neurol. 2007;22(5):530–7.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  72. Motta F, Stignani C, Antonello CE. Effect of intrathecal baclofen on dystonia in children with cerebral palsy and the use of functional scales. J Pediatr Orthop. 2008;28(2):213–7.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  73. Albright AL. Intrathecal baclofen in cerebral palsy movement disorders. J Child Neurol. 1996;11(Suppl 1):S29–35.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  74. Kozeis N, Anogeianaki A, Mitova DT, Anogianakis G, Mitov T, Klisarova A. Visual function and visual perception in cerebral palsied children. Ophthalmic Physiol Opt. 2007;27(1):44–53.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  75. O’Connor AR, Fielder AR. Visual outcomes and perinatal adversity. Semin Fetal Neonatal Med. 2007;12(5):408–14. [Epub 2007 Aug 20]

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  76. Ghasia F, Brunstrom J, Gordon M, Tychsen L. Frequency and severity of visual sensory and motor deficits in children with cerebral palsy; gross motor function classification scale. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 2008;49(2):572–80.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  77. Garcia ML, Ty EB, Taban M, David Rothner A, Rogers D, Traboulsi EI. Systemic and ocular findings in 100 patients with optic nerve hypoplasia. J Child Neurol. 2006;21(11):949–56.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  78. Lawrence L, Trower J, Ward S. Ophthalmic evaluation and intervention for young children with cerebral palsy. Dev Med Child Neurol. 2000;83(42):13.

    Google Scholar 

  79. Sonksen PM, Petrie A, Drew KJ. Promotion of visual development of severely visually impaired babies: evaluation of a developmentally based program. Dev Med Child Neurol. 1991;33:320–35.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  80. Murphy C, Yeargin-Allsopp M, Decouflé, Drews CD. Prevalence of cerebral palsy among ten-year-old children in metropolitan Atlanta, 1985 through 1987. J Pediatr. 1993;123:S13–9.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  81. Fligor B, Neault M, Mullen C, Feldman HA, Jones DT. Factors associated with sensorineural hearing loss among survivors of extracorporeal membrane oxygenation therapy. Pediatrics. 2005;115:1519–28.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  82. Williamson WD, Demmler G, Percy AK, Catlin FI. Progressive hearing loss in infants with asymptomatic congenital cytomegalovirus infection. Pediatrics. 1992;90:862–6.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  83. Edby K, Mårild S. Urinary tract dysfunction in children with cerebral palsy. Acta Paediatr. 2000;89:1505–6.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  84. Roijen LE, Postema K, Limbeek VJ, Kuppevelt VH. Development of bladder control in children and adolescents with cerebral palsy. Dev Med Child Neurol. 2001;43(2):103–7.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  85. Rodrigues dos Santos MT, Masiero D, Novo NF, Simionato MR. Oral conditions in children with cerebral palsy. J Dent Child (Chic). 2003;70(1):40–6.

    Google Scholar 

  86. Winter K, Baccaglini L, Tomar S. A review of malocclusion among individuals with mental and physical disabilities. Spec Care Dentist. 2008;28(1):19–26.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  87. Russell GM, Kinirons MJ. A study of the barriers to dental care in a sample of patients with cerebral palsy. Community Dent Health. 1993;10(1):57–64.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  88. Jawadi AH, Casamassimo PS, Griffen A, Enrile B, Marcone M. Comparison of oral findings in special needs children with and without gastrostomy. Pediatr Dent. 2004;26(3):283–8.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  89. Domaracki L, Sisson L. Decreasing drooling with oral motor stimulation in children with multiple disabilities. Am J Occup Ther. 1990;44(8):680–4.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  90. Johnson HM, Reid SM, Hazard CJ, Lucas JO, Desai M, Reddihough DS. Effectiveness of the Innsbruck sensorimotor activator and regulator in improving saliva control in children with cerebral palsy. Dev Med Child Neurol. 2004;46(1):39–45.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  91. Bachrach S, Walter R, Trzcinski K. Use of glycopyrrolate and other anticholinergic medications for sialorrhea in children with cerebral palsy. Clin Pediatr. 1998;37:485–90.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  92. Banerjee KJ, Glasson C, O’Flaherty SJ. Parotid and submandibular botulinum toxin A injections for sialorrhoea in children with cerebral palsy. Dev Med Child Neurol. 2006;48:883–7.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  93. Burton M. The surgical management of drooling. Dev Med Child Neurol. 1991;33:1110–6.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  94. Arnrup K, Crossner C. Caries prevalence after submandibular duct retroposition in drooling children with neurological disorders. Pediatr Dent. 1990;12(2):98–101.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  95. Hilberink SR, Roebroeck MD, Nieuwstraten W. Health issues in young adults with cerebral palsy: towards a life-span perspective. J Rehabil Med. 2007;39(8):605–11.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  96. Russo RN, Miller MD, Haan E, Cameron ID, Crotty M. Pain characteristics and their association with quality of life and self-concept in children with hemiplegic cerebral palsy identified from a population register. Clin J Pain. 2008;24(4):335–42.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  97. Newman C, O’Regan M, Hensey O. Sleep disorders in children with cerebral palsy. Dev Med Child Neurol. 2006;48:564–8.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  98. Stores G. Medication for sleep-wake disorders. Arch Dis Child. 2003;88:899–903.

    Article  PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  99. Scal P. Transition for youth with chronic conditions: primary care physicians’ approaches. Pediatrics. 2002;110(6):1315–21.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  100. American Academy of Pediatrics, American Academy of Family Physicians, American College of Physicians–American Society of Internal Medicine. A consensus statement on health care transitions for young adults with special health care needs. Pediatrics. 2002;110(6):1304–6.

    Google Scholar 

  101. Dodge N. Cerebral palsy: medical aspects. Pediatr Clin North Am. 2008;55(50):1189–208.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgments

The author wishes to thank her colleagues for their constructive comments and Terri Shoemaker for assistance with the references. This chapter is adapted with permission from author’s previous work, Dodge [101].

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Michigan State University, Lansing, MI, USA

    Nancy N. Dodge

  2. Neurodevelopmental Pediatrics, Helen DeVos Children’s Hospital, Grand Rapids, MI, 49503, USA

    Nancy N. Dodge

Authors
  1. Nancy N. Dodge
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Nancy N. Dodge .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. Kalamazoo Center for Medical Studies, Michigan State University, Oakland Drive 1000, Kalamazoo, 49008, Michigan, USA

    Dilip R. Patel

  2. Kalamazoo Center for Medical Studies, Michigan State University, Oakland Drive 1000, Kalamazoo,, 49008, Michigan, USA

    Donald E. Greydanus

  3. Division of Adolescent Medicine, University of Kentucky, Lexington, 40506, Kentucky, USA

    Hatim A. Omar

  4. , Division for Mental Retardation, Ministry of Social Affairs and Social Se, PO Box 1260, Jerusalem, 91012, Israel

    Joav Merrick

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2011 Springer Science+Business Media B.V.

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Dodge, N.N. (2011). Medical Management of Cerebral Palsy. In: Patel, D., Greydanus, D., Omar, H., Merrick, J. (eds) Neurodevelopmental Disabilities. Springer, Dordrecht. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-007-0627-9_15

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-007-0627-9_15

  • Published:

  • Publisher Name: Springer, Dordrecht

  • Print ISBN: 978-94-007-0626-2

  • Online ISBN: 978-94-007-0627-9

  • eBook Packages: MedicineMedicine (R0)

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation