Abstract
This chapter assesses the impact of the 1997 reform on women’s political participation in the UP level in Bangladesh. Along with ascertaining the role of the reform on women’s involvement in political decision making, this chapter also deals with assessing the progress of women in their economic choices and societal freedom, since they receive honoraria and are required to be involved in societal affairs, as part of their job as representatives of the people. This chapter concludes that not much improvement has been made in the economic freedom of the women members as a result of the reform since the amount of money that they earn is spent by the male members for the maintenance of their families. Moreover, they have failed to dominate the family decisions. Women’s societal liberty has increased somewhat, and it is encouraging to note that the society has slowly started to accept women as members of the UP. On the other hand, no significant improvement has been noticed with regard to the women members’ involvement in the activities of the UP. In fact, they work in a hostile environment where they are perceived as inefficient and incapable by their male colleagues. They are always treated unequally during project distribution and membership distribution of various committees of the UP. Furthermore, their position as a minority has made them unsuccessful in influencing the decision-making process of the UP.
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- 1.
Other members mean the father, brother, husband, son, and others.
- 2.
All respondents expressed this view; author’s interviews, 2007.
- 3.
More than half (61.88 %) of the respondents expressed this view; author’s interviews, 2007.
- 4.
Less than half (38.32 %) of the respondents expressed this view; author’s interviews, 2007.
- 5.
More than half (52.34 %) of the respondents expressed such a view; author’s interviews, 2007.
- 6.
About half (47.66 %) of the respondents expressed such view; author’s interviews, 2007.
- 7.
The first category suggested that women members played the most dominant role in the family decision making process, while the role of women in the second category was to supply information when required. The third category suggested that they could sit in the decision-making process without any power to express their opinion.
- 8.
About a third (33.33 %) of the respondents expressed this view; author’s interviews, 2007.
- 9.
About a third (29.41 and 37.25 %) expressed these view respectively, author’s interviews, 2007.
- 10.
Over half (53.27 %), over a third (34.58 %), and just over a tenth (12.15 %) of the respondents expressed these views respectively; author’s interviews, 2007.
- 11.
Author’s interviews with the women members, 2007.
- 12.
Author’s interviews, 2007.
- 13.
Mullah is a term used for someone who is known or believed to be learned in religious matters.
- 14.
This case substantiates the subordinate state of women in Bangladesh, where they are perceived as needing the help of their husbands to be capable to do anything except taking care of their families.
- 15.
It does not mean that all women candidates from political families who ran in the election won. It still depends on how popular their family members are. However, candidates from political families have some advantages since they are more mobile than the others and have a broad network in the society.
- 16.
Muslims constitute 89.5 % of the population of Bangladesh. Among the rest of the population, Hindus constitutes 9.6 %, while Buddhists and Christians constitute 0.7 and 0.3 %, respectively (Religion in Bangladesh, available online at http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Religion_in_Bangladesh, accessed on February 25, 2013).
- 17.
Author’s interviews, 2007.
- 18.
Authors interviews with the majority of the women members, 2007.
- 19.
Among the 107 elected women members in the study area, only three were Hindus, while the rest of the 104 women were Muslims.
- 20.
More than half (62.63 %) expressed this view; author’s interviews, 2007.
- 21.
A little above half (55 %) and below half (45 %) responded respectively; author’s interviews, 2007.
- 22.
35 % responded in this way; author’s interviews, 2007.
- 23.
30 and 35 % responded respectively; author’s interviews, 2007.
- 24.
People who do not believe in Islamic values or do not abide by the rules of Islam are called non-Muslims in Bangladeshi society. Sometimes, people from other religions are called non-Muslims as well.
- 25.
Author’s interviews, 2007.
- 26.
Author’s interviews, 2007.
- 27.
60.75 % respondents expressed this view; author’s interviews, 2007.
- 28.
39.25 % respondents expressed this view; author’s interviews, 2007.
- 29.
54.21 % women members expressed this view; author’s interviews, 2007.
- 30.
Summary of views expressed by women members; author’s interviews, 2007.
- 31.
81.31 % women members expressed such view; author’s interviews, 2007.
- 32.
Authors’ interviews with women members, 2007.
- 33.
72.90 % of the women members want people to meet them; author’s interviews, 2007.
- 34.
The finding of the study identified one important cultural practice, which is the societal habit of going to a member’s residence to seek help rather than to lodge a complaint or seek help at an office.
- 35.
63.38 % opine such views.
- 36.
Author’s interviews with women members, 2007.
- 37.
A case of fatwa in Bangladesh caught the attention of the international community when a small group of people in the name of Soldiers of Islam announced a prize of BDTK 50,000 (1 US$ = 82 Taka) for the execution of writer Taslima Nasreen (who wrote several novels criticizing Islam) in September 1993. The fatwa was issued on the ground that her works were insulting to Islam (Shehabuddin 1999, p. 1012).
- 38.
Author’s interview with the women members, 2007.
- 39.
Three important educational institutions are located in the district headquarters of Rajshahi: Rajshahi University (RU), Rajshahi University of Engineering and Technology (RUET), and Rajshahi Medical College (RMC).
- 40.
Compared with the other divisional cities in Bangladesh, literacy in Rajshahi is relatively high. The rate of literacy in the six divisional cities is 35.2 % in Dhaka, 32.2 % in Chittagong, 37.2 % in Rajshahi, 45.8 % in Khulna, 47.7 % in Barisal, and 33.6 % in Sylhet (Manzoor et al. 2003, p. 5).
- 41.
Author’s interviews, 2007.
- 42.
Author’s interviews, 2007.
- 43.
Author’s interview, 2007.
- 44.
Opinion expressed by majority of the respondents who protested against fatwa; author’s interviews, 2007.
- 45.
Author’s interviews, 2007.
- 46.
Author’s interviews with the women members, 2007.
- 47.
Author’s interviews with the women members, 2007.
- 48.
Author’s interviews with the women members, 2007. Findings suggest that only 12.15 % of women have access to newspapers, while the number having access to television and internet is 19.63 and 00 % respectively.
- 49.
Educational background of the women members are: Primary level: 27.10 %, secondary level (VI–X): 37.38 %, SSC: 23.63 %, HSC: 10.28 %, graduation: 1.87 %, and post-graduation: 00 %.
- 50.
The highest number of women members (67.29 %) belongs to the lowest income group (BDTK 3,000 to BDTK 4,999), while the percentage of women members who belong to the lower-middle class (BDTK 5,000 to BDTK 7,499) and middle class (BDTK 7,500 to BDTK 9,999) income groups are 21.50 and 2.80 %, respectively. The rest of the 8.41 % of women members belongs to the relatively higher income group with a monthly income of 10,000+. It is important to mention here that there is a wide income gap between rural and urban areas in Bangladesh. A person with a household income level above TK 10,000 is considered to be in the rich class in rural areas, while a person with the same income level is considered to be in the middle class in the urban or city areas. Thus, this group of households (TK 10,000+) may comprise the richest 10 percent of the total population of rural areas.
- 51.
Internet World Stats: Usage and Population Statistics, available online at http://www.internetworldstats.com/stats.htm, accessed on 05/05/2013.
- 52.
Salish (informal adjudication) is a social practice in rural Bangladesh. Many of the local offenses or disputes are settled in the local salish even before they can be brought to the courts of law for adjudication. Salish indeed plays a very prominent role in the rural society. It helps maintain law and order as well as peace. Salish is normally participated in and administered by matbars (rural leaders) and UP chairmen and members.
- 53.
Author’s interviews with the women members, 2007.
- 54.
Author’s interviews with the women members, 2007.
- 55.
Author’s interview with the women members, 2007.
- 56.
Summary of the opinions expressed by majority of the respondents interviewed. Author’s interviews with the women members, 2007.
- 57.
Author’s interviews with the women members, 2007.
- 58.
Author’s interviews with the women members, 2007.
- 59.
The UP is composed of a chairman, nine members from the nine general seats, and three women members from the three reserved seats for women. In most cases, the members elected from the general seats are males.
- 60.
Author’s interviews with the women members, 2007.
- 61.
Dalit, literally meaning oppressed, is the name given to castes traditionally considered untouchable by upper castes.
- 62.
A sarpanch is a democratically elected head of a village-level statutory institution of the local self-government called the gram (village) panchayat in India. He, together with the other elected panches (members), constitutes the gram panchayat. The sarpanch is the focal point of contact between government officers and the village community.
- 63.
In order to explore the male members’ perception, two males (chairman or member) from each of the 36 UPs were interviewed.
- 64.
Author’s interviews with the authors, 2007.
- 65.
Summary of the opinions expressed by some of the males; author’s interviews, 2007.
- 66.
Author’s interviews with the male chair and members, 2007.
- 67.
Summary of the opinion expressed by 45 out of the 72 male members and chair who do not encounter any problem working with the women members, Author’s interviews with the males, 2007.
- 68.
Author’s interviews with the males, 2007.
- 69.
Author’s interviews with the women members, 2007.
- 70.
Summary of opinions expressed by most of the respondents; author’s interviews, 2007.
- 71.
A vast majority (78.13 %) of the women members asserted that their protests are “never considered” while only a small group of respondents replied “always considered” (6.25 %) and “sometimes” (15.63 %); author’s interviews, 2007.
- 72.
BDTK is the local currency.
- 73.
1 US$ equals to BDT. 82.
- 74.
See Chap. 3 for more details about the committee system.
- 75.
Author’s interviews with the women members, 2007.
- 76.
Summary of the opinions expressed by the respondents who expressed negative views regarding membership in the committees; Author’s interviews, 2007.
- 77.
AL (37.38 %), BNP (23.36 %), JP (14.02 %), and BJI (6.54 %); Author’s interviews, 2007.
- 78.
Author’s interviews with the women members, 2007.
- 79.
Author’s interviews with the women members, 2007.
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Panday, P.K. (2013). Elected Women Members in the Union Parishad. In: Women’s Political Participation in Bangladesh. Springer, India. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-81-322-1272-0_6
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