Abstract
Chloropicrin was initially synthesized in 1848 by addition of bleaching powder to picric acid, and was initially patented in 1908 for use as an insecticide in the fumigation of stored grains and for nematode soil treatments.
During WW I, chloropicrin was used as a tear gas and was the subject of several experimental studies with small numbers of volunteer subjects. In 1921, Fries and West reported on the ocular dose response for four subjects: the time to involuntary eye closure for chloropicrin concentrations was between 2 and 38 sec, at concentrations between 2 and 20 ppm (Fries and West 1921). Concentrations below 1–2 ppm produced “considerable blinking” but not eye closure. Flury and Zernik (1931) summarized the results of German studies (original citation by Gildemeister and Heubner 1920) on chloropicrin. These studies demonstrated that chloropicrin concentrations of 0.3–3.7 ppm produce involuntary eye closure within 3–30 sec. Concentrations of 15 ppm could not be tolerated by unhabituated subjects for longer than 1 min (Flury and Zernik 1931). In addition to intense eye irritation, wartime exposure to chloropicrin was associated with coughing and severe gastrointestinal effects, which included persistent nausea, vomiting, colic, and diarrhea (Fries and West 1921; Prentiss 1937).
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1 Information on this case published in the MMWR (Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report) of August 20, 2004;53(32):740–742 referenced a total of 165 cases; one additional case is included in this report based upon information reviewed since that article was published.
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One episode was designated as a priority because an individual was hospitalized for greater than 24 hr.
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To help mitigate exposure potential to chloropicrin, the Ventura County Agricultural Commissioner’s Office had previously established the following special permit conditions for methyl bromide and/or chloropicrin field fumigation within 500 ft of occupied properties:
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Gas-confining tarps shall have a minimum thickness of 1.5-mil or be of “high density” construction.
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Discontinue all applications by 2:00 p.m.
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All tarps shall remain in place for 72 hr.
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Make no tandem applications in this area.
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An episode affecting 320 residents was associated with a drip application on the north end of Salinas, CA, in September, 2005. A detailed description of the episode is under review.
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Oriel, M., Edmiston, S., Beauvais, S., Barry, T., O’Malley, M. (2009). Illnesses Associated with Chloropicrin use in California Agriculture, 1992 – 2003. In: Whitacre, D. (eds) Reviews of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology Vol 200. Reviews of Environmental Contamination and Toxicology, vol 200. Springer, Boston, MA. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4419-0028-9_1
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