Skip to main content

New Directions and Alternative Approaches to the Measurement of Emotional Intelligence

  • Chapter
  • First Online:

Part of the book series: The Springer Series on Human Exceptionality ((SSHE))

Imagine a test developer struggling with the complex task of creating an assessment tool to measure an exciting new construct desired by educational, industrial/organizational, and clinical psychologists alike. The test developer first turns to the peer-review literature for a definition to act as a basis for this test, but finds instead heated debate and much disagreement. Researchers are using many different approaches to measure this new construct. In addition, the scores associated with these different approaches seem to measure different entities. The dissension about which approach is the most useful or valid leaves the test developer confused over which approach might measure the “real” construct. The measurement of emotional intelligence (EI) is currently at just such a somewhat precarious stage.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution.

Buying options

Chapter
USD   29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD   129.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD   169.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD   169.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Learn about institutional subscriptions

References

  • Ackerman, P. L., & Heggestad, E. D. (1997). Intelligence, personality and interests: Evidence for overlapping traits. Psychological Bulletin, 121, 219–245.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ashton, M. C., Lee, K., Vernon, P. A., & Jang, K. L. (2000). Fluid intelligence, crystallized intelligence, and the openness/intellect factor. Journal of Research in Personality, 34, 198–207.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Austin, E. J. (2005). Emotional intelligence and emotional information processing. Personality and Individual Differences, 39, 403–414.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Austin, E. J., & Saklofske, D. H. (2005). Far too many intelligences? On the communalities and differences between social, practical, and emotional intelligences. In R. Schulze & R. D. Roberts (Eds.), International handbook of emotional intelligence (pp. 107–128). Cambridge: Hogrefe & Huber.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bar-On, R. (1997). Bar-On Emotional Quotient Inventory (EQ-i): Technical manual. Toronto: Multi-Health Systems.

    Google Scholar 

  • Barchard, K. A., & Hakstian, R. A. (2004). The nature and measurement of emotional intelligence abilities: Basic dimensions and their relationships with other cognitive ability and personality variables. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 64, 437–462.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bastian, V. A., Burns, N. R., & Nettelbeck, T. (2005). Emotional intelligence predicts life skills, but not as well as personality and cognitive abilities. Personality and Individual Differences, 39, 1135–1145.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Baum, K. M., & Nowicki, S. (1998). Perception of emotion: Measuring decoding accuracy of adult prosodic cues varying in intensity. Journal of Nonverbal Behavior, 22, 89–108.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Brackett, M. A., Mayer, J. D., & Warner, R. M. (2004). Emotional intelligence and its relation to everyday behavior. Personality and Individual Differences, 36, 1387–1402.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Brackett, M. A., Rivers, S. E., Shiffman, S., Lerner, N., & Salovey, P. (2006). Relating emotional abilities to social functioning: A comparison of self-report and performance measures of emotional intelligence. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 91, 780–795.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Brackett, M. A., Warner, R. M., & Bosco, J. S. (2005). Emotional intelligence and relationship quality among couples. Personal Relationships, 12, 197–212.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Buck, R. (1984). The communication of emotion. New York: Guilford.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chapin, F. S. (1942). Preliminary standardization of a social insight scale. American Sociological Review, 7, 214–228.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ciarrochi, J. V., Chan, A. Y. C., & Caputi, P. (2000). A critical evaluation of the emotional intelligence construct. Personality and Individual Differences, 28, 539–561.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Costanzo, M., & Archer, D. (1993). The Interpersonal Perception Task-15 (IPT-15): Videotape and technical manual. Berkley, CA: University of California Extension Media Center.

    Google Scholar 

  • Danforth, M. M., McIntire, K. A., & Schneider, H. G. (1997, February). Measuring cue perception: An assessment of the reliability and validity of three instruments. Poster presented at the meetings of the Southeastern Psychological Association, Atlanta, GA.

    Google Scholar 

  • Darwin, C. (1872). The expression of the emotions in man and animals. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Davies, M., Stankov, L., & Roberts, R. D. (1998). Emotional intelligence: In search of an elusive construct. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 75, 989–1015.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Derksen, J., Kramer, I., & Katzko, M. (2002). Does a self-report measure for emotional intelligence assess something different than general intelligence? Personality and Individual Differences, 32, 37–48.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Dewey, J. (1909). Moral principles in education. New York: Houghton Mifflin.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dunn, E. W., Brackett, M. A., Ashton-James, C., Schneiderman, E., & Salovey, P. (2007). On emotionally intelligent time travel: Individual difference in affective forecasting ability. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 33, 85–93.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ekman, P. (2004). Emotions revealed. New York: Times Books

    Google Scholar 

  • Ekman, P., & Friesen, W. V. (1976). Measuring facial movement. Journal of Environmental Psychology and Nonverbal Behavior, 1, 56–75.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Ekman, P., & Friesen, W. V. (1978). The facial action coding system. Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologists Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ekman, P., & Rosenberg, E. L. (1997). What the face reveals: Basic and applied studies of spontaneous expression using the facial action coding system. New York: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fiedler, K., & Bluemke, M. (2005). Faking the IAT: Aided and unaided response control on the implicit association test. Basic and Applied Social Psychology, 27, 307–316.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Freudenthaler, H. H., & Neubauer, A. C. (2005). Emotional intelligence: The convergent and discriminant validities of intra- and inter-personal abilities. Personality and Individual Differences, 39, 569–589.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Freudenthaler, H. H., & Neubauer, A. C. (2007). Measuring emotional management abilities: Further evidence of the importance to distinguish between typical and maximum performance. Personality and Individual Differences, 42, 1561–1572.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gohm, C. L., Corser, G. C., & Dalsky, D. J. (2005). Emotional intelligence under stress: Useful, unnecessary, or irrelevant? Personality and Individual Differences, 39, 1017–1028.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Goldenberg, I., Matheson, K., & Mantler, J. (2006). The assessment of emotional intelligence: A comparison of performance-based and self-report methodologies. Journal of Personality Assessment, 86, 33–45.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Greenwald, A. G., McGhee, D. E., & Schwartz, J. L. K. (1998). Measuring individual differences in implicit cognition: The implicit association test. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 74, 1464–1480.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hall, J. A., & Carter, J. D. (1999). Gender-stereotype accuracy as an individual difference. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 77, 350–359.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Hsee, C. K., & Hastie, R. (2006). Decision and experience: Why don’t we choose what makes us happy? TRENDS in Cognitive Science, 10, 31–37.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Huber, J., Ariely, D., & Fischer, G. (2002). Expressing preferences in a principal-agent task: A comparison of choice, rating, and matching. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 87, 66–90.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • James, L. R. (1998). Measurement of personality via conditional reasoning. Organizational Research Methods, 1, 131–163.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • James, L. R., McIntyre, M. D., Glisson, C. A., Bowler, J. L., & Mitchell, T. R. (2004). The conditional reasoning measurement system for aggression: An overview. Human Performance, 17, 271–295.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • James, L. R., McIntyre, M. D., Glisson, C. A., Green, P. D., Patton, T. W., LeBreton, J. M., et al. (2005). A conditional reasoning measure for aggression. Organizational Research Methods, 8, 69–99.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Landy, F. J. (2006). The long, frustrating, and fruitless search for social intelligence: A cautionary tale. In K. R. Murphy (Ed.), A critique of emotional intelligence: What are the problems and how can they be fixed? (pp. 81–123). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lane, R. D. (2000). Levels of emotional awareness: Neurological, psychological, and social perspectives. In R. Bar-On & J. D. A. Parker (Eds.), The handbook of emotional intelligence: Theory, development, assessment, and application at home, school, and in the workplace (pp. 171–191). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lane, R. D., Quinlan, D. M., Schwartz, G. E., Walker, P. A., & Zeitlin, S. B. (1990). The levels of emotional awareness scale: A cognitive-development measure of emotion. Journal of Personality Assessment, 55, 124–134.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lopes, P. N., Brackett, M. A., Nezlek, J. B., Schütz, A., Sellin, I., & Salovey, P. (2004). Emotional intelligence and social interaction. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 30, 1018–1034.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • MacCann, C., & Roberts, R. D. (2008). New paradigms for assessing emotional intelligence: Theory and data. Emotion, 8, 540–551.

    Google Scholar 

  • Magill-Evans, J., Koning, C., Cameron-Sadava, A., & Manyk, K. (1995). The child and adolescent social perception measure. Journal of Nonverbal Behavior, 19, 151–169.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Matsumoto, D., LeRoux, J., Wilson, C., Raroque, J., Ekman, P., Yrizarry, N., et al. (2000). A new test to measure emotion recognition ability: Matsumoto and Ekman’s Japanese and Caucasian Brief Affect Recognition Test (JACBART). Journal of Nonverbal Behavior, 24, 179–209.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Matthews, G., Emo, A. K., Funke, G., Zeidner, M., Roberts, R. D., Costa, P. T., Jr., et al. (2006). Emotional intelligence, personality, and task-induced stress. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied, 12, 96–107.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mauss, I. B., Evers, C., Wilhelm, F. H., & Gross, J. J. (2006). How to bite your tongue without blowing your top: Implicit evaluation of emotion regulation predicts affective responding to anger provocation. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 32, 589–602.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mayer, J. D., Caruso, D. R., & Salovey, P. (1999). Emotional intelligence meets traditional standards for an intelligence. Intelligence, 27, 267–298.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mayer, J. D., & Geher, G. (1996). Emotional intelligence and the identification of emotion. Intelligence, 22, 89–113.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mayer, J. D., Roberts, R. D., & Barsade, S. G. (2008). Human abilities: Emotional intelligence. Annual Review of Psychology, 59, 507–536.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mayer, J. D., & Salovey, P. (1997). What is emotional intelligence? In P. Salovey & D. Sluyter (Eds.), Emotional development and EI: Educational implications (pp. 3–34). New York: Basic Books.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mayer, J. D., Salovey, P., & Caruso, D. R. (2002). Mayer-Salovey-Caruso Emotional Intelligence Test (MSCEIT) user's manual. Toronto: Multi-Health Systems.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mayer, J. D., Salovey, P., Caruso, D. R., & Sitarenios, G. (2003). Measuring emotional intelligence with the MSCEIT V2.0. Emotion, 3, 97–105.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • McDaniel, M. A., & Nguyen, N. T. (2001). Situational judgment tests: A review of practice and constructs assessed. International Journal of Selection and Assessment, 9, 103–113.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mierke, J., & Klauer, K. C. (2003). Method-specific variance in the implicit association test. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 85, 1180–1192.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Murphy, N. A., Hall, J. A., & Colvin, C. R. (2003). Accurate intelligence assessments in social interactions: Mediators and gender effects. Journal of Personality, 71, 465–493.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Newsome, S., Day, A. L., & Catano, V. M. (2000). Assessing the predictive validity of emotional intelligence. Personality and Individual Differences, 29, 1005–1016.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Orchard, B. M. (2005). The effects of individual differences on affective forecasting. Unpublished Masters Thesis, Clemson University, South Carolina.

    Google Scholar 

  • O’Sullivan, M. (2007). Trolling for trout, trawling for tuna: The methodological morass in measuring emotional intelligence. In G. Matthews, M. Zeidner, & R. D. Roberts (Eds.), The science of emotional intelligence: Knowns and unknowns (pp. 258–287). New York: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Palmer, B., Gignac, G., Manocha, R., & Stough, C. (2005). A psychometric evaluation of the Mayer-Salovey-Caruso Emotional Intelligence Test version 2.0. Intelligence, 33, 285–305.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Pérez, J. C., Petrides, K. V., & Furnham, A. (2005). Measuring trait emotional intelligence. In R. Schulze & R. D. Roberts (Eds.), Emotional intelligence: An international handbook (pp. 181–202). Cambridge, MA: Hogrefe & Huber.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rivers, S. E., Brackett, M. A., Salovey, P., & Mayer, J. D. (2007). Measuring emotional intelligence as a set of mental abilities. In G. Matthews, M. Zeidner, & R. D. Roberts (Eds.), The science of emotional intelligence: Knowns and unknowns (pp. 258–287). New York: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Roberts, R. D., Schulze, R., & MacCann, C. (2008). The measurement of emotional intelligence: A decade of progress? In G. Boyle, G. Matthews, & D. Saklofske (Eds.), The Sage handbook of personality theory and assessment (pp. 461–482). New York: Sage.

    Google Scholar 

  • Roberts, R. D., Schulze, R., O’Brien, K., MacCann, C., Reid, J., & Maul, A. (2006). Exploring the validity of the Mayer-Salovey-Caruso Emotional Intelligence Test (MSCEIT) with established emotions measures. Emotion, 6, 663–669.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Roberts, R. D., Zeidner, M., & Matthews, G. (2001). Does emotional intelligence meet traditional standards for an intelligence? Some new data and conclusion. Emotion, 1, 196–231.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Roberts, R. D., Zeidner, M., & Matthews, G. (2007). Emotional intelligence: Knowns and unknowns. In G. Matthews, M. Zeidner, & R. D. Roberts (Eds.), The science of emotional intelligence: Knowns and unknowns. (pp. 419–474). New York: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Roseman, I. J. (1984). Cognitive determinants of emotion: A structural theory. Review of Personality and Social Psychology, 5, 11–36.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rosenthal, R., Archer, D., Hall, J. A., DiMatteo, M. R., & Rogers, P. L. (1979). Measuring sensitivity to nonverbal communication: The PONS test. In A. Wolfgang (Ed.), Nonverbal behavior: Applications and cultural implications. New York: Academic Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rosip, J. C., & Hall, J. A. (2004). Knowledge of nonverbal cues, gender, and nonverbal decoding accuracy. Journal of Nonverbal Behavior, 28, 267–286.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Scherer, K. R. (2007). Componential emotion theory can inform models of emotional competence. In. G. Matthews, M. Zeidner, & R. D. Roberts (Eds.), The science of emotional intelligence: Knowns and unknowns. (pp. 101–126). New York: Oxford University Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Scherer, K. R., Banse, R., & Wallbott, H. G. (2001). Emotion inferences from vocal expression correlate across languages and cultures. Journal of Cross Cultural Psychology, 32, 76–92.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Schutte, N. S., Malouff, J. M., Hall, L. E., Haggerty, D. J., Cooper, J. T., Golden, C. J., et al. (1998). Development and validation of a measure of emotional intelligence. Personality and Individual Differences, 25, 167–177.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Seidel, K. (2007). Social intelligence and auditory intelligence – useful constructs? Unpublished Doctoral Thesis, Otto-von-Guericke-University, Magdeburg, Germany. Retrievable from: http://diglib.uni-magdeburg.de/Dissertationen/2007/kriseidel.pdf

  • Stokes, T. L., & Bors, D. A. (2001). The development of a same-different inspection time paradigm and the effects of practice. Intelligence, 29, 247–261.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Süß, H.-M., Seidel, K., & Weis, S. (2008). Neue Wege zur leistungsbasierten Erfassung sozialer Intelligenz und erste Befunde [New ways to performance-based assessment of social intelligence and new results]. In W. Sarges & D. Scheffer (Eds.), Innovationen in der Eignungsdiagnostik [Innovations in personnel selection]. Göttingen, Germany: Hogrefe.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tett, R. P., Fox, K. E., & Wang, A. (2005). Development and validation of a self-report measure of emotional intelligence as a multidimensional trait domain. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 31, 859–888.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Trinidad, D. R., & Johnson, C. A. (2002). The association between emotional intelligence and early adolescent tobacco and alcohol use. Personality and Individual Differences, 32, 95–105.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Trinidad, D. R., Unger, J. B., Chou, C.-P., & Johnson, C. (2005). Emotional intelligence and acculturation to the United States: Interactions on the perceived social consequences of smoking in early adolescents. Substance Use and Misuse, 40, 1697–1706.

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Vrij, A., & Semin, G. R. (1996). Lie experts' beliefs about nonverbal indicators of deception. Journal of Nonverbal Behavior, 20, 65–80.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Weis, S., & Süß, H.-M. (2005). Social intelligence – A review and critical discussion of measurement concepts. In R. Schulze & R. D. Roberts (Eds.), Emotional intelligence: An international handbook (pp. 204–230). Cambridge, MA: Hogrefe & Huber.

    Google Scholar 

  • Weis, S., & Süß, H.-M. (2007). Reviving the search for social intelligence – A multitrait-multimethod study of its structure and construct validity. Personality and Individual Differences, 42, 3–14.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Zeidner, M., Shani-Zinovich, I., Matthews, G., & Roberts, R. D. (2005). Assessing emotional intelligence in gifted and non-gifted high school students: Outcomes depend on the measure. Intelligence, 33, 369–391.

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgments

This research was supported in part by U.S. Army Research Institute (ARI) Contract W91WAW-07-C-0025 to the Educational Testing Service (ETS). We thank Patrick Kyllonen, Don Powers, Matthew Ventura, and Dan Eignor for comments on an earlier draft of this manuscript, and Mary Lucas, Jennifer Minsky, and Cris Valkyria for supporting the preparation of this chapter. All statements expressed in this article are the authors’ and do not necessarily reflect the official opinions or policies of the U.S. government, ARI, or ETS.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

Authors

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Benjamin Orchard .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2009 Springer Science+Business Media, LLC

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Orchard, B., MacCann, C., Schulze, R., Matthews, G., Zeidner, M., Roberts, R.D. (2009). New Directions and Alternative Approaches to the Measurement of Emotional Intelligence. In: Parker, J., Saklofske, D., Stough, C. (eds) Assessing Emotional Intelligence. The Springer Series on Human Exceptionality. Springer, Boston, MA. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-0-387-88370-0_17

Download citation

Publish with us

Policies and ethics