Navigation and science in the Age of Discovery and Enlightenment: Foundations, Popularization and Nature of Science

The scientific revolution that took place in the 17th Century was based on the recognition of the importance of the experience, evidence and change in the phenomena being observed. While Archimedes is said to have anticipated calculus, it was Newton and Leibniz who developed calculus as a mathematical tool. Calculating longitude was crucial in navigation, however the instruments used were not sufficient for precise and reliable measurement. One problem was that the clocks available in the beginning of the 18th century were unstable due to the ship’s movement, the changes in temperature and humidity and so on. Also it was difficult to measure reliably the angles of planets and the moon on moving ships. While the Church constrained the spread and acceptance of ideas promoted by Copernicus and Galileo, the influential astronomers impeded the acceptance of the first very accurate clocks made by John and Willian Harrison at Greenwich in England. During the last third of the 17th century, the possibility of applying knowledge of the stars to such practical matters of strategic interest as the precise acquisition of geographical coordinates or the implementation of new and safer methods of navigation had led to an increase in interest of the main European governments in the promotion of science.

- Astronomy at the beginning of the 18th century was based on three major work programmes. On the one hand, celestial mechanics, characterised by the study of the motions of the bodies in the solar system, would attempt to contrast theory and observation in order to consolidate and develop the proposals put forward by Newton in the second half of the 17th century. The second programme would be the quest for precision in observational astronomy, which involved the construction of more accurate instruments, the calculation of errors and the development of the scientific treatment of data.

- The last aspect, much more practical, would be related to the applications of this science in nautical navigation, cartography and hydrography. In the specific case of nautical astronomy, this usefulness would come from the resolution of the problem of determining longitude at sea and the improvement of navigation methods, in addition to its possible applications to cartography or the determination of boundaries.

- In the field of geodesy, the science that studies the shape of the earth, the scientific community was immersed in the following controversy: was the earth flattened at the poles or at the equator? On the one hand, the Royal Society of London, led by Newton, supported the first argument; on the other hand, the Academy of Sciences in Paris, led by Descartes, supported the second. The solution would come in the mid-18th century, supporting Newton’s view, with the measurement of one degree of meridian at the equator and another at the pole.

- Topography, the science that studies and determines the dimensions and shape of a terrain or land surface in order to represent it graphically, was concerned with the design of land maps of countries. France was particularly prominent in this field.

and more precise working methods in the 17th and 18th centuries, with the result that the quality of the surveys improved considerably.

- Cartography and hydrography, in which Spain, together with Portugal, had been pioneers since the 15th century, adopted new and more precise working methods in the 17th and 18th centuries, with the result that the quality of the surveys improved considerably.

- Finally, naval engineering or architecture. Once the 70-80 gun ship-of-the-line was adopted as the standard ship by all navies, the debate centred on how to combine power and maximum rate of fire with the robustness of the structure, rigging, sails and speed, in order to obtain the most operational platform possible.

The aim of the special edition is to investigate the emergence of scientific ideas following the scientific revolution in the 17th century with special reference to Newtonian science and navigation. The topics should be based on the social and cultural influences on the science and technology of navigation.

We invite scholars to submit papers to this special issue of Foundations of Science, with specific attention to the science of navigation. Domains could include the History of Science (Physics, Mathematics, Biologists, Astronomers, Geographers, Oceanographers, Military and Merchant Navy Officers), Epistemology of Science and Nature of Science applied to Newton’s Principia (especially with reference to the Geneva Edition).

PEER-REVIEW PROCESS All qualified papers submitted for publication, as long as meeting the criteria of originality, will undergo n-blind peer-review. Before being submitted to this special issue, papers are expected to be well-edited and reviewed in clear, mistake-free proper academic English writing. Moreover, submission guidelines (which can be found below) should be strictly followed. GUIDELINES: https://www.springer.com/journal/10699/submission-guidelines?detailsPage=pltci_1146107

SUBMISSION PROCESSUS Abstract–PROPOSAL We stress the need of an early abstract proposal via email to the corresponding guest editor, maximum 2 pages, free editing, including title of the paper, name and surname, affiliation, email, and selected references]. 15th of December 2024

DEADLINE FOR WORD FILE MANUSCRIPT SUBMISSION 20th of October 2025

Final–ARTICLE Foundations of Science online editorial manager for submitting final article: https://www.editorialmanager.com/foda/default1.aspx An early registration might be required. No limitation of numbers of pages and figures. The corresponding author will send a Word file template to the contributor.

EXPECTED PUBLICATION Mid 2026

FOR FURTHER INFORMATION, PLEASE CONTACT Prof. Dr. Josep-Lluis Usó-Domènech: joseluisusodomenech@gmail.com