Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Adaptive Management and Monitoring as Fundamental Tools to Effective Salt Marsh Restoration

  • Chapter
Book cover Tidal Marsh Restoration

Part of the book series: The Science and Practice of Ecological Restoration ((SPER))

Abstract

Adaptive management as applied to ecological restoration is a systematic decision-making process in which the results of restoration activities are repeatedly monitored and evaluated to provide guidance that can be used in determining any necessary future management actions (Salafsky et al. 2001; SER International 2004). In the setup phase, stakeholders agree upon the overall goals of the restoration project, plan restoration activities, and develop conceptual models that describe expected responses to the management actions (fig. 14.1). After implementation of management measures, the project enters an iterative phase with a focus on monitoring and assessment of ecological responses. These determine whether adjustments to management measures or the conceptual models are warranted. As applied to restoration of salt marshes and other estuarine habitats, an adaptive management framework should include targets for specific structural and functional components (e.g., vegetation and hydrology), a schedule for management and restoration activities, a monitoring plan to assess the progress of the project, interim criteria with triggers, and a commitment to alter the conceptual models, monitoring plan, and even project goals if interim criteria are not met.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution

Institutional subscriptions

References

  • Able, K. W., and S. M. Hagan. 2000. “Effects of Common Reed (Phragmites australis) Invasion on Marsh Surface Macrofauna: Responses of Fishes and Decapod Crustaceans.” Estuaries 23:633–46.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Barbour, M. G., J. H. Burk, W. D. Pitts, F. S. Gilliam, and M. W. Schwartz. 1999. Terrestrial Plant Ecology. 3rd ed. Menlo Park, CA: Addison Wesley Longman.

    Google Scholar 

  • Brinson, M. M., and R. Rheinhardt. 1996. “The Role of Reference Wetlands in Functional Assessment and Mitigation.” Ecological Applications 6:69–76.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Bromberg, K. D., and M. D. Bertness. 2006. “Reconstructing New England Salt Marsh Losses Using Historical Maps.” Estuaries 28:823–32.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Buchsbaum R. N., J. Catena, E. Hutchins, and M. J. James-Pirri. 2006. “Changes in Salt Marsh Vegetation, Phragmites australis, and Nekton in Response to Increased Tidal Flushing in a New England Salt Marsh.” Wetlands 26:544–57.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Buchsbaum, R. N., L. A. Deegan, J. Horowitz, R. H. Garritt, A. E. Giblin, J. P. Ludlam, and D. H. Shull. 2009. “Effects of Regular Salt Marsh Haying on Marsh Plants, Algae, Invertebrates and Birds at Plum Island Sound, Massachusetts.” Wetlands Ecology and Management 17:469–87.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Burdick, D. M., M. Dionne, R. M. Boumans, and F. T. Short. 1997. “Ecological Responses to Tidal Restorations of Two Northern New England Salt Marshes.” Wetlands Ecology and Management 4:129–44.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Cahoon, D. R., and G. R. Guntenspergen. 2010. “Climate Change, Sea-Level Rise, and Coastal Wetlands.” National Wetlands Newsletter 32:8–12.

    Google Scholar 

  • Calloway, J. C., G. Sullivan, J. S. Desmond, G. D. Williams, and J. B. Zedler. 2001. “Assessment and Monitoring. Pp. 271–335 in Handbook for Restoring Tidal Wetlands, edited by J. B. Zedler. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Carlisle, B. K., A. M. Donovan, A. L. Hicks, V. S. Kooken, J. P. Smith, and A. R. Wilbur. 2002. A Volunteer’s Handbook for Monitoring New England Salt Marshes. Boston: Massachusetts Office of Coastal Zone Management.

    Google Scholar 

  • Carullo, M., B. K. Carlisle, and J. P. Smith. 2007. A New England Rapid Assessment Method for Assessing Condition of Estuarine Marshes: A Boston Harbor, Cape Cod and Islands Pilot Study. Boston: Massachusetts Office of Coastal Zone Management.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chambers, R. M., D. T. Osgood, D. J. Bart, and F. Montalto. 2003. “Phragmites australis Invasion and Expansion in Tidal Wetlands. Interactions among Salinity, Sulfides, and Hydrology.” Estuaries 26:398–406.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Clarke, K. R., and R. M. Warwick. 2001. Change in Marine Communities: An Approach to Statistical Analysis and Interpretation. 2nd ed. PRIMER-E: Plymouth. Plymouth, UK: Plymouth Marine Laboratory.

    Google Scholar 

  • Collins, J. N., E. D. Stein, M. Sutula, R. Clark, A. E. Fetscher, L. Grenier, C. Grosso, and A. Wiskind. 2008. California Rapid Assessment Method (CRAM) for Wetlands. Version 5.0.2. http://www.cramwetlands.org/documents/2008-09-30_CRAM%205.0.2.pdf.

    Google Scholar 

  • Conway, C. J. 2008. Standardized North American Marsh Bird Monitoring Protocols. Wildlife Research report no. 2008–01. Tucson, AZ: US Geological Survey, Arizona Cooperative Fish and Wildlife Research Unit.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cornu, C. E., and S. Sadro. 2002. “Physical and Functional Responses to Experimental Marsh Surface Elevation Manipulation in Coos Bay’s South Slough.” Restoration Ecology 10:474–86.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Craft, C., J. Reader, J. N. Sacco, and S. W. Broome. 1999. “Twenty-five Years of Ecosystem Development of Constructed Spartina alterniflora L. Marshes.” Ecological Applications 9:1405–19.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Fell, P. E., R. S. Warren, and W. A. Niering. 2000. “Restoration of Salt and Brackish Tidelands in Southern New England: Angiosperms, Macroinvertebrates, Fish, and Birds.” Pp. 845–58 in Concepts and Controversies in Tidal Marsh Ecology, edited by M. P. Weinstein and D. A. Kreeger. Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fell, P. E., R. S. Warren, J. K. Light, R. L. Rawson Jr., and S. M. Fairley. 2003. “Comparison of Fish and Macroinvertebrate Use of Typha angustifolia, Phragmites australis, and Treated Phragmites Marshes along the Lower Connecticut River.” Estuaries 28:534–51.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Gauch, H. G. 1982. Multivariate Analysis in Community Ecology. New York: Cambridge University Press.

    Book  Google Scholar 

  • Gregory, R., D. Ohlson, and J. Arvai. 2006. “Deconstructing Adaptive Management: Criteria for Applications to Environmental Management.” Ecological Applications 16:2411–25.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hartig, E. K., V. Gornitz, A. Kolker, F. Mushacke, and D. Fallon. 2001. “Anthropogenic and Climate Change Impacts on Salt Marshes of Jamaica Bay, New York City.” Wetlands 22:71–89.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Jacobs, A., E. McLaughlin, and D. L. O’Brien. 2008. Mid-Atlantic Tidal Wetland Rapid Assessment Method Version 1.0. Dover: Delaware Department of Natural Resources and Environmental Control, Division of Water Resources.

    Google Scholar 

  • James-Pirri, M. J., C. Roman, and J. Heltshe. 2007. “Power Analysis to Determine Sample Size for Monitoring Vegetation Change in Salt Marsh Habitats.” Wetlands Ecology and Management 15:335–45.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • James-Pirri, M. J., C. T. Roman, and J. L Swanson. 2010. “A Method to Quantitatively Sample Nekton in Salt-Marsh Ditches and Small Tidal Creeks.” Transactions of the American Fisheries Society 139:413–19.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Kent, M., and P. Coker. 1992. Vegetation Description and Analysis: A Practical Approach. London: Bellhaven Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kentula, M. E. 2007. “Foreword: Monitoring Wetlands at the Watershed Scale.” Wetlands 27:412–15.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Konisky, R. A., D. M. Burdick, M. Dionne, and H. A. Neckles. 2006. “A Regional Assessment of Salt Marsh Restoration and Monitoring in the Gulf of Maine.” Restoration Ecology 14:516–25.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Levin, L. A., C. Neira, and E. D. Grosholz. 2006. “Invasive Cordgrass Modifies Wetland Trophic Function.” Ecology 87:419–32.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • McKinney, R. A., K. B. Raposa, and T. E. Kutcher. 2010. “Use of Urban Marine Habitats by Foraging Wading Birds.” Urban Ecosystems 13:191–208.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Mitsch, W. J. 2000. “Self-Design Applied to Coastal Restoration: An Application of Ecological Engineering.” Pp. 554–64 in Concepts and Controversies in Tidal Marsh Ecology, edited by M. P. Weinstein and D. A. Kreeger. Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mitsch, W. J., and R. F. Wilson. 1996. “Improving Success of Wetland Creation and Restoration with Know-How, Time, and Self-Design.” Ecological Applications 6:77–83.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Morgan, P. A., and F. T. Short. 2002. “Using Functional Trajectories to Track Constructed Marsh Development in the Great Bay Estuary, New Hampshire USA.” Restoration Ecology 10:461–73.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Morris, J. T., P. V. Sundareshwar, C. T. Nietch, B. Kjerfve, and D. R. Cahoon. 2002. “Responses of Tidal Wetlands to Rising Sea Levels.” Ecology 83:2869–77.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Neckles, H. A., and M. Dionne, eds. 2000. Regional Standards to Identify and Evaluate Tidal Wetland Restoration in the Gulf of Maine: A GPAC Workshop Report. Wells, ME: Wells National Estuarine Research Reserve. http://www.pwrc.usgs.gov/resshow/neckles/gpac.htm.

    Google Scholar 

  • Neckles, H. A., M. Dionne, D. M. Burdick, C. T. Roman, R. Buchsbaum, and E. Hutchins. 2002. “A Monitoring Protocol to Assess Tidal Restoration of Salt Marshes on Local and Regional Scales.” Restoration Ecology 10:556–63.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Philipp, K. R., and R. T. Field. 2005. “Phragmites australis Expansion in Delaware Bay Salt Marshes.” Ecological Engineering 25:275–91.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Portnoy, J. W., and A. E. Giblin. 1997. “Effects of Historic Tidal Restrictions on Salt Marsh Sediment Chemistry.” Biogeochemistry 36:275–303.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Ralph C. J., J. R. Sauer, and S. Droege. 1995. Monitoring Bird Populations by Point Counts. General Technical Report PSW-GTR-149. Albany, CA: USDA Forest Service.

    Google Scholar 

  • Raposa, K. B. 2002. “Early Responses of Fishes and Crustaceans to Restoration of a Tidally Restricted New England Salt Marsh.” Restoration Ecology 10:665–76.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Raposa, K. B., and C. T. Roman. 2003. “Using Gradients of Tidal Restriction to Evaluate Nekton Community Response to Salt Marsh Restoration.” Estuaries 26:98–105.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Raposa, K. B., C. T. Roman, and J. F. Heltshe. 2003. “Monitoring Nekton as a Bioindicator in Shallow Estuarine Habitats.” Environmental Monitoring and Assessment 81:239–55.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Roman, C. T., M. J. James-Pirri, and J. F. Heltshe. 2001. Monitoring Salt Marsh Vegetation: A Protocol for the Long-Term Coastal Ecosystem Monitoring Program at Cape Cod National Seashore. Wellfleet, MA: Cape Cod National Seashore. www.nature.nps.gov/im/monitor/protocoldb.cfm.

    Google Scholar 

  • Roman, C. T., K. B. Raposa, S. C. Adamowicz, M. J. James-Pirri, and J. G. Catena. 2002. “Quantifying Vegetation and Nekton Response to Tidal Restoration of a New England Salt Marsh.” Restoration Ecology 10:450–60.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Rozas, L. 1992. “Bottomless Lift Nets for Quantitatively Sampling Nekton on Intertidal Marshes.” Marine Ecology Progress Series 89:287–92.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Salafsky, N., R. Margoluis, and K. Redford. 2001. Adaptive Management: A Tool for Conservation Practitioners. Washington, DC: Biodiversity Support Program. http://www.fosonline.org/Site_Docs/AdaptiveManagementTool.pdf.

    Google Scholar 

  • Scatolini, S. R., and J. B. Zedler. 1996. “Epibenthic Invertebrates of Natural and Constructed Marshes of San Diego Bay.” Wetlands 16:24–37.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Short, F. T., D. M. Burdick, C. A. Short, R. C. Davis, and P. Morgan. 2000. “Developing Success Criteria for Restored Eelgrass, Salt Marsh and Mud Flat Habitats.” Ecological Engineering 15:239–52.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Simenstad, C. A., and R. M. Thom. 1996. “Functional Equivalency Trajectories of the Restored Gog-Le-Hi-Te Estuarine Wetland.” Ecological Applications 6:38–56.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Smith, S. M., and R. S. Warren. 2007. “Determining Ground Surface Topography in Tidal Marshes Using Watermarks.” Journal of Coastal Research 23:265–69.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Society for Ecological Restoration International (SER) International Science and Policy Working Group. 2004. The SER International Primer on Ecological Restoration. Tucson, AZ: Society for Ecological Restoration International.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stewart-Oaten, A., and J. R. Bence. 2001. “Temporal and Spatial Variation in Environmental Impact Assessment.” Ecological Monographs 71:305–39.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Teal, J. M., and S. B. Peterson. 2005. “Introduction to the Delaware Bay Salt Marsh Restoration.” Ecological Engineering 25:199–203.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Teal, J. M., and L. Weishar. 2005. “Ecological Engineering, Adaptive Management, and Restoration Management in Delaware Bay Salt Marsh Restoration.” Ecological Engineering 25:304–14.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Teo, S. L. H., and K. W. Able. 2003. “Habitat Use and Movement of the Mummichog (Fundulus heteroclitus) in a Restored Salt Marsh.” Estuaries 26:720–30.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Thom, R. 2000. “Adaptive Management of Coastal Ecosystem Restoration Projects.” Ecological Engineering 16:365–72.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Underwood, A. J. 1992. “Beyond BACI: The Detection of Environmental Impacts on Populations in the Real, but Variable, World.” Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology 161:145–78.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). 2002a. Wetland Monitoring and Assessment: A Technical Framework. EPA-843-F-02-002(h). Washington, DC: Office of Water, US Environmental Protection Agency.

    Google Scholar 

  • US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). 2002b. Methods for Evaluating Wetland Condition: Study Design for Monitoring Wetlands. EPA-822-R-02-015. Washington, DC: Office of Water, US Environmental Protection Agency.

    Google Scholar 

  • US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). 2002c. Methods for Evaluating Wetland Condition: Using Vegetation to Assess Environmental Conditions in Wetlands. EPA-822-R-02-020. Washington, DC: Office of Water, US Environmental Protection Agency.

    Google Scholar 

  • US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). 2002d. Methods for Evaluating Wetland Condition: Developing an Invertebrate Index of Biological Integrity for Wetlands. EPA-822-R-02-019. Washington, DC: Office of Water, US Environmental Protection Agency.

    Google Scholar 

  • US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). 2002e. Methods for Evaluating Wetland Condition: Biological Assessment Methods for Birds. EPA-822-R-02-023. Washington, DC: Office of Water, US Environmental Protection Agency.

    Google Scholar 

  • Warren, R. S., P. E. Fell, J. L. Grimsby, E. L. Buck, G. C. Rilling, and R. A. Fertik. 2001. “Rates, Patterns and Impacts of Phragmites australis Expansion and Effects of Experimental Phragmites Control on Vegetation, Macroinvertebrates, and Fish within Tidelands of the Lower Connecticut River.” Estuaries 24:90–107.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Warren, R. S., P. E. Fell, R. Rozsa, A. H. Brawley, A. C. Orsted, E. T. Olson, V. Swamy, and W. A. Niering. 2002. “Salt Marsh Restoration in Connecticut: 20 Years of Science and Management.” Restoration Ecology 10:497–513.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Weis, J., and P. Weis. 2003. “Is the Invasion of the Common Reed, Phragmites australis, into Tidal Marshes of the Eastern US an Ecological Disaster?” Marine Pollution Bulletin 46:816–20.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Weishar, L., J. M. Teal, and R. Hinkle. 2005. “Designing Large-Scale Wetland Restoration for Delaware Bay.” Ecological Engineering 25:231–39.

    Article  Google Scholar 

  • Wigand, C., R. McKinney, M. Chintala, S. Lussier, and J. Heltshe. 2010. “Development of a Reference Coastal Wetland Set in Southern New England (USA).” Environmental Monitoring and Assessment 161:583–98.

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Williams, B. K., R. C. Szaro, and C. D. Shapiro. 2007. Adaptive Management: The U.S. Department of the Interior Technical Guide. Washington, DC: Adaptive Management Working Group, US Department of the Interior.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wozniak, A. S., C. T. Roman, S. C. Wainright, R. A. McKinney, and M. J. James-Pirri. 2006. “Monitoring Food Web Changes in Tide-Restored Salt Marshes: A Carbon Stable Isotope Approach.” Estuaries and Coasts 29:568–78.

    Google Scholar 

  • Zedler, J. B. 2006. “Wetland Restoration.” Pp. 348–406 in Ecology of Freshwater and Estuarine Wetlands, edited by D. P. Batzer and R. R. Sharitz. Berkeley: University of California Press.

    Google Scholar 

  • Zedler, J. B., and J. C. Calloway. 1999. “Tracking Wetland Restoration: Do Mitigation Sites Follow Desired Trajectories?” Restoration Ecology 7:69–73.

    Article  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgments

The authors thank the editors, Charles Roman and David Burdick, for their encouragement and guidance in producing this work. Kerstin Watson provided a very helpful review of the manuscript.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Massachusetts Audubon Society, USA

    Robert N. Buchsbaum (coastal ecologist)

  2. Atlantic Ecology Division, US Environmental Protection Agency, Narragansett, Rhode Island, USA

    Cathleen Wigand (research ecologist)

Authors
  1. Robert N. Buchsbaum
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Cathleen Wigand
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. University of Rhode Island’s Graduate School of Oceanography, USA

    Charles T. Roman (professor-in-residence) (professor-in-residence)

  2. Department of Natural Resources and the Jackson Estuarine Laboratory, University of New Hampshire, USA

    David M. Burdick (associate professor) (associate professor)

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2012 Island Press

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Buchsbaum, R.N., Wigand, C. (2012). Adaptive Management and Monitoring as Fundamental Tools to Effective Salt Marsh Restoration. In: Roman, C.T., Burdick, D.M. (eds) Tidal Marsh Restoration. The Science and Practice of Ecological Restoration. Island Press, Washington, DC. https://doi.org/10.5822/978-1-61091-229-7_14

Download citation

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation