Abstract
It has become common to think of democratization as a global phenomenon. The designation “Third Wave of democracy” makes it clear that observers believe the group of democracies that emerged in the wake of Portugal’s transition in 1974 had an impact on one another, at least in terms of timing and proximity. The puzzle is that most of the literature on democratic transitions views the phenomenon of democratic transitions as inextricably linked to local circumstances, political leaders, and strategic decisions.1 To the extent that theorists have identified global linkages to explain the latest wave of democratization, explanations attribute it to either imitation effects on a regional level or a shift in the global zeitgeist that favors democracy.2 This theoretical perspective appears to be at odds with the reality of myriad major efforts by the United States, European countries, and international organizations to promote democratization through political and economic incentives such as foreign aid, accession to regional treaty organizations such as NATO and the European Union, and most recently, a new “Wilsonianism” in U.S. foreign policy that associates at least minimal democratization with the maintenance of state sovereignty and legitimacy.3
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Guillermo O’Donnell and Philippe Schmitter, Transitions from Authoritarian Rule: Tentative Conclusions about Uncertain Democracies (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1986).
LaurenceWhitehead, ed. The International Dimensions of Democratization: Europe and the Americas, Expanded Edition (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001).
Thomas Carothers, Aiding Democracy Abroad: The Learning Curve (Washington, DC: Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, 1999); and Carothers, “Promoting Democracy and Fighting Terror,” Foreign Affairs 82, 1 (January/February 2003), available at http://www.foreignaffairs.org/20030101faessay10224-p10/thomas-carothers/promoting-democracy-and-fighting-terror.html.
Michael W. Doyle, Ways of War and Peace (New York: W.W. Norton, 1997).
Jack L. Snyder, From Voting to Violence: Democratization and Nationalist Conflict (New York: W.W. Norton, 2000); Jeanne Giraldo and Harold Trinkunas, “Terrorism Financing and State Responses in Comparative Perspective,” paper prepared for 101st American Political Science Association conference, Washington DC, 1–4 September 2005.
Steven Levitsky and Lucan Way, “Autocracy by Democratic Rules: The Dynamics of Competitive Authoritarianism in the Post—Cold War Era,” paper prepared for the conference Mapping the Great Zone: Clientelism and the Boundary between Democratic and Democratizing, Columbia University, 4–5 April 2003.
Adam Isacson and Joy Olson, “Just the Facts: A Civilian’s Guide to U.S. Defense and Security Assistance to Latin America and the Caribbean,” Washington, DC: Latin America Working Group, 1999.
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Samuel Huntington, The Third Wave of Democracy (Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma Press, 1991).
Whitehead, The International Dimensions of Democratization; Juan J. Linz and Alfred Stepan, Problems of Democratic Transition and Consolidation (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996).
O’Donnell and Schmitter, Transitions from Authoritarian Rule.
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George McGovern, “Revolution into Democracy: Portugal after the Coup,” report to the Committee on Foreign Relations, United States Senate, August 1976, 103–109.
Thomas Bruneau, “Patterns of Politics in Portugal Since the Revolution,” in Jorge Braga de Macedo and Simon Serfaty, eds., Portugal Since the Revolution: Economic and Political Perspectives (Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1981).
McGovern, “Revolution into Democracy,” 72–75.
From field interviews conducted by author Bruneau between 1975 and 1981.
Interviews conducted by Bruneau in Lisbon, Brussels, and Washington, DC between 1977 and 1978.
Larry Diamond, “Promoting Democracy in the 1990s: Actors and Instruments, Issues and Imperatives,” report to the Carnegie Commission on Preventing Deadly Conflict, December 1995 (New York: Carnegie Corporation of New York, December 1995).
Ibid.
Freedom House is an NGO founded in the 1940s by Eleanor Roosevelt and others to promote global democracy, primarily through a number of highly regarded annual publications that measure specific trends, such as freedom of the press. See http://www.freedomhouse.org; accessed 6 March 2006. Note also that the authoritative Bertelsmann Transformation Index 2006: Toward Democracy and a Market Economy (Gutersloh: Verlag Bertelsmann Stiftung, 2006) does not include security or civil-military relations in its very comprehensive approach to democracy.
Felipe Aguero, Soldiers, Civilians and Democracy (Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press 1995), 203–206.
Jay Cope, “International Military Education and Training: An Assessment,” Institute for National Strategic Studies, National Defense University, Washington, DC. McNair Paper 44, October 1995; Hans Born, “Representative Democracy and the Role of Parliaments: An Inventory of Democracy Assistance Programs,” Geneva: Geneva Center for the Democratic Control of Armed Forces, 2002.
C.J. LaCivita and John Christiansen, “Enhancing International Education Support to Security Cooperation,” Volumes I–III, Naval Postgraduate School, Monterey, California. 16 April 2003.
Born, “Representative Democracy and the Role of Parliaments,” 12 and 15–16.
Diamond, “Promoting Democracy in the 1990s.”
The Partnership for Peace was created in 1994 as a way to bring the newly independent states of Eastern Europe and the former Soviet Union into a cooperative alliance with NATO short of full membership. There are twenty current members, including Ireland, Switzerland, and Sweden. For a list, see http://www.nato.int/pfp/sig-cntr.htm; accessed 7 March 2006.
“Partnership Action Plan on Defence Institution Building,” NATO, 7 June 2004. See the NATO online Library of Basic Texts: http://www.nato.int/docu/basics.htm#II-D; accessed 7 March 2006.
Harold Trinkunas, Crafting Civilian Control of the Military in Venezuela: A Comparative Perspective (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2005).
David Pion-Berlin, Through Corridors of Power (University Park: Penn State University Press, 1997).
Richard Goetze and Thomas Bruneau, “Report on CCMR Project Colombia,” Monterey, CA: Center for Civil-Military Relations, July 2005; Fuerzas Militares para la Guerra: La agenda pendiente de la reforma militar (Bogota: Fundacion Seguridad & Democracia, 2003).
Wendy Hunter, Eroding Military Influence in Brazil: Politicians against Soldiers (Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 1997).
Barletta and Trinkunas, “Regime Type and Regional Security in Latin America,” 334–359.
Jeanne Giraldo, “Defense Budgets, Democratic Civilian Control, and Effective Governance,” in Thomas Bruneau and Scott Tollefson, eds., Who Guards the Guardians and How: Democratic Civil-Military Relations (Austin, TX: University of Texas Press, 2006), 178–207.
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© 2008 Thomas Bruneau and Harold Trinkunas
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Bruneau, T., Trinkunas, H. (2008). International Democracy Promotion and its Impact on Civil-Military Relations. In: Bruneau, T., Trinkunas, H. (eds) Global Politics of Defense Reform. Initiatives in Strategic Studies: Issues and Policies. Palgrave Macmillan, New York. https://doi.org/10.1057/9780230611054_3
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