Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in
Book cover

Microbial Protein Toxins pp 111–132Cite as

S. cerevisiae K28 toxin – a secreted virus toxin of the A/B family of protein toxins

  • Chapter
  • First Online:

Part of the book series: Topics in Current Genetics ((TCG,volume 11))

Abstract

Since the initial discovery of toxin-secreting killer strains in the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae more than 40 years ago, continuous research on this wide-spread phenomenon substantially strengthened our knowledge in different areas of modern biology, providing deeper insights into basic aspects of eukaryotic cell biology and virus-host cell interactions. This chapter will focus on the K28 killer system in S. cerevisiae, in particular the toxin-encoding K28 killer virus ScV-M28 and the intracellular processing, maturation, and toxicity of its viral protein toxin. The toxin’s receptor-mediated mode of action, its strategy to penetrate and to finally kill a eukaryotic target cell will be discussed, and the mechanism of toxin immunity, i.e. the question of how a virus-infected killer yeast cell resists its own toxin, will be addressed.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution.

Preview

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

References

  • 1. Bevan EA, Makower M (1963) The physiological basis of the killer-character in yeast. Proc Int Congr Genet 11:203

    Google Scholar 

  • 2. Beswick V, Brodsky JL, Kepes F, Neumann JM, Sanson A, Garrigos M (1998) Expression, purification, and characterization of Sss1p, an essential component of the yeast Sec61p protein translocation complex. Protein Expr Purif 13:423-432

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • 3. Boone C, Bussey H, Greene D, Thomas DY, Vernet T (1986) Yeast killer toxin: site-directed mutations implicate the precursor protein as the immunity component. Cell 46:105-113

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • 4. Bostian KA, Sturgeon JA, Tipper DJ (1980) Encapsidation of yeast killer double-stranded ribonucleic acids: dependence of M on L. J Bacteriol 143:463-470

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • 5. Bostian KA, Elliott Q, Bussey H, Burn V, Smith A, Tipper DJ (1984) Sequence of the preprotoxin dsRNA gene of type I killer yeast: multiple processing events produce a two-component toxin. Cell 36:741-751

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • 6. Breinig F, Tipper DJ, Schmitt MJ (2002) Kre1p, the plasma membrane receptor for the yeast K1 viral toxin. Cell 108:395-405

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • 7. Bruenn JA (1991) Relationships among the positive strand and double-strand RNA viruses as viewed through their RNA-dependent RNA polymerases. Nucleic Acids Res 19:217-226

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • 8. Bruenn JA (2002) The double-stranded RNA viruses of Ustilago maydis and their killer toxins. In: Tavantzis SM (ed) dsRNA genetic elements: concepts and applications in agriculture, forestry, and medicine. CRC Press Boca Raton, Florida, pp 109-124

    Google Scholar 

  • 9. Buck KW (1986) Fungal virology. CRC Press, Boca Raton Florida, pp 1-84

    Google Scholar 

  • 10. Bussey H (1991) K1 killer toxin, a pore-forming protein from yeast. Mol Microbiol 5:2339-2343

    Google Scholar 

  • 11. Bussey H, Sacks W, Galley D, Saville D (1982) Yeast killer plasmid mutations affecting toxin secretion and activity and toxin immunity function. Mol Cell Biol 2:346-354

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • 12. Bussey H, Saville D, Greene D, Tipper DJ, Bostian KA (1983) Secretion of Saccharomyces cerevisiae killer toxin: processing of the glycosylated precursor. Mol Cell Biol 3:1362-1370

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • 13. Bussey H, Vernet T, Sdicu AM (1988) Mutual antagonism among killer yeasts: competition between K1 and K2 killers and a novel cDNA-based K1-K2 killer strain of Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Can J Microbiol 34:38-44

    Google Scholar 

  • 14. Caston JR, Trus BL, Booy FP, Wickner RB, Wall JS, Steven AC (1997) Structure of L-A virus: a specialized compartment for the transcription and replication of double-stranded RNA. J Cell Biol 138:975-985

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • 15. Chaudhary VK, Jinno Y, Gallo MG, FitzGerald D, Pastan I (1990) Mutagenesis of Pseudomonas exotoxin in identification of sequences responsible for the animal toxicity. J Biol Chem 265:16306-16310

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • 16. Cheng RH, Caston, JR, Wang GJ, Gu F, Smith TJ, Baker TS, Bozarth RF, Trus BL, Cheng N, Wickner RB, Steven AC (1994) Fungal virus capsids, cytoplasmic compartments for the replication of double-stranded RNA, formed as icosahedral shells of asymmetric Gag dimers. J Mol Biol 244:255-258

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • 17. Dawe AL, Nuss DL (2001) Hypoviruses and chestnut blight: exploiting viruses to understand and modulate fungal pathogenesis. Annu Rev Genet 35:1-29

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • 18. Del Carratore R, Della Croce C, Simili M, Taccini E, Scavuzzo M, Sbrana S (2002) Cell cycle and morphological alterations as indicative of apoptosis promoted by UV irradiation in S. cerevisiae. Mutat Res 513:183-191

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • 19. Dignard D, Whiteway M, Germain D, Tessier D, Thomas DY (1991) Expression in yeast of a cDNA copy of the K2 killer toxin gene. Mol Gen Genet 227:127-136

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • 20. Dinman JD, Icho T, Wickner RB (1991) A -1 ribosomal frameshift in a double-stranded RNA virus of yeast forms a gag-pol fusion protein. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 88:174-178

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • 21. Dinman JD, Wickner RB (1994) Translational maintenance of frame: mutants of Saccharomyces cerevisiae with altered -1 ribosomal frameshifting efficiencies. Genetics 136:75-86

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • 22. Dunn R, Klos DA, Adler AS, Hicke L (2004) The C2 domain of the Rsp5 ubiquitin ligase binds membrane phosphoinositides and directs ubiquitination of endosomal cargo. J Cell Biol 165:135-144

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • 23. Eisfeld K, Riffer F, Mentges J, Schmitt MJ (2000) Endocytotic uptake and retrograde transport of a virally encoded killer toxin in yeast. Mol Microbiol 37:926-940

    Google Scholar 

  • 24. Ellgaard L, Helenius A (2003) Quality control in the endoplasmic reticulum. Nat Mol Cell Biol Rev 4:181-191

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • 25. El-Sherbeini M, Bostian KA (1987) Viruses in fungi: infection of yeast with the K1 and K2 killer virus. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 84:4293-4297

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • 26. Esteban R, Wickner RB (1986) Three different M1 RNA-containing viruslike particle types in Saccharomyces cerevisiae: in vitro M1 double-stranded RNA synthesis. Mol Cell Biol 6:1552-1561

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • 27. Fujimura T, Esteban R, Esteban LM, Wickner RB (1990) Portable encapsidation signal of the L-A double-stranded RNA virus of S. cerevisiae. Cell 62:819-828

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • 28. Fujimura T, Ribas JC, Makhov AM, Wickner RB (1992) Pol of gag-pol fusion protein required for encapsidation of viral RNA of yeast L-A virus. Nature 359:746-749

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • 29. Fuller RS, Brake A, Thorner J (1989) Yeast prohormone processing enzyme (KEX2 gene product) is a Ca2+-dependent serine protease. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 86:1434-1438

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • 30. Galan JM, Moreau B, André B, Volland C, Haguenauer-Tsapis R (1996) Ubiquitination mediated by the Npi1p/Rsp5p ubiquitin-protein ligase is required for endocytosis of the yeast uracil permease. J Biol Chem 271:10946-10952

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • 31. Hanes SD, Burn VE, Sturley SL, Tipper DJ, Bostian KA (1986) Expression of a cDNA derived from the yeast killer preprotoxin gene: implications for processing and immunity. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 83:1675-1679

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • 32. Hitt R, Wolf, DH (2004) Der1p, a protein required for degradation of malfolded soluble proteins of the endoplasmic reticulum: topology and Der1-like proteins. FEMS Yeast Res 4:721-729

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • 33. Huan BF, Shen YQ, Bruenn JA (1991) In vivo mapping of a sequence required for interference with the yeast killer virus. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 88:1271-1275

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • 34. Icho T, Wickner RB (1989) The double-stranded RNA genome of yeast virus L-A encodes its own putative RNA polymerase by fusing two open reading frames. J Biol Chem 264:6716-6723

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • 35. Koopman J, Albring J, Huter E, Bulbuc N, Spee P, Neefjes J, Hammerling G, Momburg F (2000) Export of antigenic peptides from the endoplasmic reticulum intersects with retrograde protein translocation through the Sec61p channel. Immunity 13:117-127

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • 36. Kreitman RJ, Pastan I (1995) Importance of the glutamate residue of KDEL in increasing the cytotoxicity of Pseudomonas exotoxin derivatives and for increased binding to the KDEL receptor. Biochem J 307:29-37

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • 37. Laun P, Pichova A, Madeo F, Fuchs J, Ellinger A, Kohlwein S, Dawes I, Fröhlich KU, Breitenbach M (2001) Aged mother cells of Saccharomyces cerevisiae show markers of oxidative stress and apoptosis. Mol Microbiol 39:1166-1173

    Google Scholar 

  • 38. Lencer WI, Tsai B (2003) The intracellular voyage of cholera toxin: going retro. TIBS 28:639-645

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • 39. Lord JM, Deeks E, Marsden CJ, Moore K, Pateman C, Smith DC, Spooner RA, Watson P, Roberts LM (2003) Retrograde transport of toxins across the endoplasmic reticulum membrane. Biochem Soc Trans 31:1260-1262

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • 40. Lord JM, Roberts LM (1998) Toxin entry: retrograde transport through the secretory pathway. J Cell Biol 140:733-736

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • 41. Ludovico P, Sousa MJ, Silva MT, Leao C, Corte-Real M (2001) Saccharomyces cerevisiae commits to a programmed cell death process in response to acetic acid. Microbiology 147:2409-2415

    Google Scholar 

  • 42. Madeo F, Fröhlich E, Ligr M, Grey M, Sigrist SJ, Wolf DH, Fröhlich KU (1999) Oxygene stress: a regulator of apoptosis in yeast. J Cell Biol 145:757-767

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • 43. Madeo F, Herker E, Maldener C, Wissing S, Lachelt S, Herlan M, Fehr M, Lauber K, Sigrist SJ, Wesselborg S, Fröhlich KU (2002) A caspase-related protease regulates apoptosis in yeast. Mol Cell 9:911-917

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • 44. Magliani W, Conti S, Gerloni M, Bertolotti D, Polonelli L (1997) Yeast killer systems. Clin Microbiol Rev 10:369-400

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • 45. Naitow H, Tang J, Canady M, Wickner RB, Johnson JE (2002) L-A virus at 3.4 A resolution reveals particle architecture and mRNA decapping mechanism. Nat Struct Biol 9:725-728

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • 46. Park CM, Banjeree N, Koltin Y, Bruenn JA (1996) The Ustilago maydis virally encoded KP1 killer toxin. Mol Microbiol 20:957-963

    Google Scholar 

  • 47. Pelham HRB, Roberts LM, Lord JM (1992) Toxin entry: how reversible is the secretory pathway? Trends Cell Biol 2:183-185

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • 48. Pelham HRB, Hardwick KG, Lewis MJ (1988) Sorting of soluble ER proteins in yeast. EMBO J 7:1757-1762

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • 49. Pelham HRB (1990) The retention signal for soluble proteins of the endoplasmic reticulum. TIBS 15:483-486

    Article  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • 50. Pfeiffer P, Radler F (1982) Purification and characterization of extracellular and intracellular killer toxin of Saccharomyces cerevisiae strain 28. J Gen Microbiol 128:2699-2706

    Google Scholar 

  • 51. Pilon M, Schekman R, Römisch K (1997) Sec61p mediates export of a misfolded secretory protein from the endoplasmic reticulum to the cytosol for degradation. EMBO J 16:4540-4548

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • 52. Plemper RK, Bohmler S, Bordallo J, Sommer T, Wolf DH (1997) Mutant analysis links the translocon and BiP to retrograde protein transport for ER degradation. Nature 388:891-895

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • 53. Radler F, Herzberger S, Schönig I, Schwarz P (1993) Investigation of a killer strain of Zygosaccharomyces bailii. J Gen Microbiol 139:495-500

    Google Scholar 

  • 54. Raths S, Rohrer J, Riezman H (1993) end3 and end4: two mutants defective in receptor mediated and fluid-phase endocytosis in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. J Cell Biol 120:55-65

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • 55. Ribas JC, Fujimura T, Wickner RB (1994) Essential RNA binding and packaging domains of the Gag-Pol fusion protein of the L-A double-stranded RNA virus of Saccharomyces cerevisiae. J Biol Chem 269:28420-28428

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • 56. Ribas JC, Wickner RB (1992) RNA-dependent RNA polymerase consensus sequence of the L-A double-stranded RNA virus: definition of essential domains. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 89:2185-2189

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • 57. Riffer F, Eisfeld K, Breinig F, Schmitt MJ (2002) Mutational analysis of K28 preprotoxin processing in the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Microbiology 148:1317-1328

    Google Scholar 

  • 58. Rockwell NC, Thorner JW (2004) The kindest cuts of all: crystal structures of Kex2 and furin reveal secrets of precursor processing. TIBS 29:80-87

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • 59. Sesti F, Shih TM, Nikolaeva N, Goldstein SAN (2001) Immunity to K1 killer toxin: internal TOK1 blockade. Cell 105:637-644

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • 60. Soetens O, DeCraene JO, Andre B (2001) Ubiquitin is required for sorting to the vacuole of the yeast general amino acid permease, Gap1. J Biol Chem 276:43949-43957

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • 61. Schaffrath R, Breunig KD (2000) Genetics and molecular physiology of the yeast Kluyveromyces lactis. Fungal Genet Biol 30:173-190

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • 62. Snapp EL, Reinhart GA, Bogert BA, Lippincott-Schwartz J, Hegde S (2004) The organization of engaged and quiescent translocons in the enoplasmic reticulum of mammalian cells. J Cell Biol 164:997-1007

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • 63. Schmitz A, Herrgen H, Winkeler A, Herzog V (2000) Cholera toxin is exported from microsomes by the Sec61p complex. J Cell Biol 148:1203-1212

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • 64. Semenza JC, Hardwick KG, Dean N, Pelham HRB (1990) ERD2, a yeast gene required for the receptor-mediated retrieval of luminal ER proteins from the secretory pathway. Cell 61:1349-1357

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • 65. Sommer T, Wolf DH (1997) Endoplasmic reticulum degradation: reverse protein flow of no return. FASEB J 11:1227-1233

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • 66. Severin FF, Hyman AA (2002) Pheromone induces programmed cell death in S. cerevisiae. Curr Biol 12:R233-235

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • 67. Schmitt MJ (1995) Cloning and expression of a cDNA copy of the viral K28 killer toxin gene in yeast. Mol Gen Genet 246:236-246

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • 68. Schmitt MJ, Breinig F (2002) The viral killer system in yeast: from molecular biology to application. FEMS Microbiol Rev 26:257-276

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • 69. Schmitt M, Brendel M, Schwarz R, Radler F (1989) Inhibition of DNA synthesis in Saccharomyces cerevisiae by yeast toxin K28. J Gen Microbiol 135:1529-1535

    Google Scholar 

  • 70. Schmitt MJ, Compain P (1995) Killer-toxin-resistant kre12 mutants of Saccharomyces cerevisiae: genetic and biochemical evidence for a secondary K1 membrane receptor. Arch Microbiol 164:435-443

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • 71. Schmitt MJ, Eisfeld K (1999) Killer viruses in S. cerevisiae and their general importance in understanding eukaryotic cell biology. Recent Res Devel Virol 1:525-545

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • 72. Schmitt MJ, Klavehn P, Wang J, Schonig I, Tipper DJ (1996) Cell cycle studies on the mode of action of yeast K28 killer toxin. Microbiology 142:2655-2662

    Google Scholar 

  • 73. Schmitt MJ, Neuhausen F (1994) Killer toxin-secreting double-stranded RNA mycoviruses in the yeasts Hanseniaspora uvarum and Zygosaccharomyces bailii. J Virol 68:1765-1772

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • 74. Schmitt MJ, Poravou O, Trenz K, Rehfeldt K (1997) Unique double-stranded RNAs responsible for the anti-Candida activity of the yeast Hanseniaspora uvarum. J Virol 71:8852-8855

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • 75. Schmitt M, Radler F (1987) Mannoprotein of the yeast cell wall as primary receptor for the killer toxin of Saccharomyces cerevisiae strain 28. J Gen Microbiol 133:3347-3354

    Google Scholar 

  • 76. Schmitt M, Radler F (1988) Molecular structure of the cell wall receptor for killer toxin KT28 in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. J Bacteriol 170:2192-2196

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • 77. Schmitt MJ, Schernikau G (1997) Construction of a cDNA-based K1/K2/K28 triple killer strain of Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Food Technol Biotechnol 35:281-285

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • 78. Schmitt MJ, Tipper DJ (1990) K28, a unique double-stranded RNA killer virus of Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Mol Cell Biol 10:4807-4815

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • 79. Schmitt MJ, Tipper DJ (1992) Genetic analysis of maintenance and expression of L and M double-stranded RNAs from yeast killer virus K28. Yeast 8:373-384

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • 80. Schmitt MJ, Tipper DJ (1995) Sequence of the M28 dsRNA: preprotoxin is processed to an alpha/beta heterodimeric protein toxin. Virology 213:341-351

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • 81. Sturley SL, Elliot Q, LeVitre J, Tipper DJ, Bostian KA (1986) Mapping of functional domains within the Saccharomyces cerevisiae type 1 killer preprotoxin. EMBO J 5:3381-3389

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • 82. Tipper DJ, Schmitt MJ (1991) Yeast dsRNA viruses: replication and killer phenotypes. Mol Microbiol 5:2331-2338

    Google Scholar 

  • 83. Townsley FM, Frigerio G, Pelham HRB (1994) Retrieval of HDEL proteins is required for growth of yeast cells. J Cell Biol 127:21-28

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • 84. Tsai B, Ye Y, Rapoport TA (2002) Retro-translocation of proteins from the endoplasmic reticulum into the cytosol. Nat Mol Cell Biol Rev 3:246-255

    Article  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • 85. Wesche J, Rapak A, Olsnes S (1999) Dependence of ricin toxicity on translocation of the toxin A-chain from the endoplasmic reticulum to the cytosol. J Biol Chem 274:34443-34449

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • 86. Wickner RB (1992) Double-stranded and single-stranded RNA viruses of Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Annu Rev Microbiol 46:347-375

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • 87. Wickner RB (1996) Double-stranded RNA viruses of Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Microbiol Rev 60:250-265

    Google Scholar 

  • 88. Wickner RB (1996) Prions and RNA viruses of Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Annu Rev Genet 30:109-139

    Article  CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • 89. Wickner RB, Bussey H, Fujimura T, Esteban R (1995) Viral RNA and the killer phenomenon of Saccharomyces. In: Kück, U (ed) The mycota: genetics and biotechnology. Springer Verlag Berlin, pp 211-226

    Google Scholar 

  • 90. Yoshida T, Chen CC, Zhang MS, Wu HC (1991) Disruption of the Golgi apparatus by brefeldin A inhibits the cytotoxicity of ricin, modeccin, and Pseudomonas toxin. Exp Cell Res 192:389-395

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • 91. Zorg J, Kilian S, Radler F (1988) Killer toxin producing strains of the yeasts Hanseniaspora uvarum and Pichia kluyveri. Arch Microbiol 149:261-267

    Google Scholar 

  • 92. Zhu YS, Kane J, Zhang XY, Zhang M, Tipper DJ (1993) Role of the gamma component of preprotoxin in expression of the yeast K1 killer phenotype. Yeast 9:251-2660

    CAS  PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Angewandte Molekularbiologie, Universität des Saarlandes, Postfach 151150, Gebäude 2, D-66041 Saarbrücken, Germany

    Susanne Leis, Jenny Spindler, Jochen Reiter, Frank Breinig & Manfred J. Schmitt

Authors
  1. Susanne Leis
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Jenny Spindler
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  3. Jochen Reiter
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  4. Frank Breinig
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  5. Manfred J. Schmitt
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Editor information

Manfred J. Schmitt Raffael Schaffrath

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Leis, S., Spindler, J., Reiter, J., Breinig, F., Schmitt, M.J. S. cerevisiae K28 toxin – a secreted virus toxin of the A/B family of protein toxins. In: Schmitt, M.J., Schaffrath, R. (eds) Microbial Protein Toxins. Topics in Current Genetics, vol 11. Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg. https://doi.org/10.1007/b100194

Download citation

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation