Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in

Non-target Effects of Biological Control Agents

  • Chapter
Book cover Biological Control: Measures of Success

Abstract

Biological control uses three strategies: management practices to enhance native agents already occurring in the system (Chapter 4); captive rearing and release of resident native agents (Chapter 3); and importation and release of non-native agents (sometimes termed ‘classical biological control’) (Chapter 2). A fourth strategy is rapidly being developed: genetic manipulation of both native and non-native agents to enhance their effectiveness against pests (see Chapter 14). An important measure of successful pest control is the effect of the control procedure on the environment, including any direct and indirect effects on non-target species. Although biological control is frequently presumed to be safe to the environment (Lai, 1988; Coulson et al., 1991; U.S. Congress, 1995; Bathon, 1996; Onstad and McManus, 1996; McEvoy, 1996; Jervis 1997), all pest control methods have inherent risks. That is, any method that reduces the population of an abundant pest organism to below an economic threshold will have community-level effects and therefore will inherently pose environmental risks. The scope of this chapter is to review the published evidence for environmental impacts of biological control on non-target organisms and to suggest ways of minimising the inherent risks. In the context of this book, non-target effects are important for they have the potential to compromise the success of biological control.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Log in via an institution
Chapter
USD 29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD 129.00
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD 169.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD 169.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Institutional subscriptions

Preview

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

Unable to display preview. Download preview PDF.

References

  • Andres, L.A. and Goeden, R.D. (1971), The biological control of weeds by introduced natural enemies, in Biological Control, ed. C.B. Huffaker,,Plenum Press, New York, pp. 143–

    Google Scholar 

  • Asquith, A. (1995), Alien species and the extinction crisis of Hawaii’s invertebrates, Endangered Species Update, 12, 6–11.

    Google Scholar 

  • Atkinson, I. (1989), Introduced animals and extinctions, in Conservation for the Twenty-first Century, eds. D. Western and M.C. Pearl, Oxford University Press, Oxford, pp. 54–75.

    Google Scholar 

  • Austwick, P.K.C. (1980), The pathogenic aspects of the use of fungi: the need for risk analysis and registration of fungi, Ecological Bulletin (Stockholm), 31, 91–102.

    Google Scholar 

  • Barlow, N.D. and Wratten, S.D. (1996), Ecology of predator-prey and parasitoid-host systems: Progress since Nicholson, in Frontiers of Population Ecology, eds. R.B. Floyd, A.W. Sheppard and P.J. De Barro, CSIRO Publishing, Melbourne, pp. 217–243.

    Google Scholar 

  • Barratt, B.I.P., Evans, A.A., Ferguson, C.M., Barker, G.M., McNeill, M.R. and Phillips, C.B. (1997), Laboratory nontarget host range of the introduced parasitoids Microctonus aethiopoides and M. hyperodae (Hymenoptera: Braconidae) compared with field parasitism in New Zealand, Environmental Entomology, 26, 694–702.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bathon, H. (1996), Impact of entomopathogenic nematodes on non-target hosts, Biocontrol Science and Technology, 6, 421–434.

    Google Scholar 

  • Beard, J.D. (1991), Bug detectives crack the tough cases, Science, 254, 1580–1581.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Boag, P.T. and Grant, P.R. (1981), Intense selection in a population of Darwin’s finches (Geospizinae) in the Galapagos, Science, 214, 82–85.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Boettner, G.H., Elkinton, J.S. and Boettner, C.J. (2000), Impacts of an introduced generalist parasitoid on three native species of saturniid moths, Conservation Biology, (in press).

    Google Scholar 

  • Brown, M.W and Miller, S.S. (1998), Coccinellidae (Coleoptera) in apple orchards of eastern West Virginia and the impact of the invasion by Harmonia axyridis, Entomological News, 109, 143–151.

    Google Scholar 

  • Caltigirone, L.E. (1981), Landmark examples in classical biological control, Annual Review Entomology, 26, 213–232.

    Google Scholar 

  • Carruthers, R.L. and Onsager, J.A. (1993), Perspective on the use of exotic natural enemies for biological control of pest grasshoppers (Orthoptera: Acrididae), Environmental Entomology, 22, 885–903.

    Google Scholar 

  • Chapin, J.B. and Brou, V.A. (1991), Harmonia axyridis (Pallas), the third species of the genus to be found in the United States (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae), Proceedings of the Entomological Society Washington, 93, 630–635.

    Google Scholar 

  • Civeyrel, L. and Simberloff, D. (1996), A tale of two snails: is the cure worse than the disease? Biodiversity and Conservation, 5, 1231–1252.

    Google Scholar 

  • Clarke, A.R. (1993), A new Trissolcus Ashmead species (Hymenoptera: Scelionidae) from Pakistan: species description and its role as a biological control agent, Bulletin Entomological Research, 83, 523–527.

    Google Scholar 

  • Clarke, A.R. and Walker, G.H. (1995), “Strains” and the classical biological control of insect pests, Canadian Journal Zoology, 73, 1777–1790.

    Google Scholar 

  • Clarke B., Murray, J. and Johnson, M.S. (1984), The extinction of endemic species by a program of biological control, Pacific Science, 38, 97–104.

    Google Scholar 

  • Coblentz, B.E. and Coblentz, B. A. (1985), Control of the Indian mongoose Herpestes auropunctatus on St. John, US Virgin Islands, Biological Conservation, 33, 281–288.

    Google Scholar 

  • Coderre D., Lucas, E. and Gagne, I. (1995), The occurrence of Harmonia axyridis (Pallas) (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae) in Canada, The Canadian Entomologist, 127, 609–611.

    Google Scholar 

  • Conant, M. (1975), Seasonal abundances of the mamane moth, its nuclear polyhedrosis virus, and its parasites, Hawaii International Biological Program Technical Report No 64.

    Google Scholar 

  • Conant, S. (1988), Saving endangered species by translocation, BioScience, 38, 254–257.

    Google Scholar 

  • Coote T., Loeve E., Meyer, J.Y. and Clarke, D. (1999), Extant populations of endemic partulids on Tahiti, French Polynesia, Oryx, 33, 215–222.

    Google Scholar 

  • Coulson, J.R., Fuester, R.W., Schaefer, P.W., Ertle, L.R., Kelleher, J.S. and Rhoads, L.D. (1986), Exploration for and importation of natural enemies of the gypsy moth, Lymantria dispar (L.) (Lepidoptera: Lymantriidae), in North America: an update, Proceedings Entomological Society Washington, 88, 461–475.

    Google Scholar 

  • Coulson, J.R., Soper, R.S., and Williams, D.W. (eds.) (1991), Biological Control Quarantine: Needs and Procedures, Proceedings of a Workshop Sponsored by USDA-ARS. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, ARS-99.

    Google Scholar 

  • Courtenay, W.R. and Meffe, G.K. (1989) Small fishes in strange places: a review of introduced poeciliids, in Ecology and Evolution of Live bearing Fishes (Poeciliidae), eds. G.K. Meffe and F.N. Snelson, Jr. Prentice-Hall, New York, pp. 319–3

    Google Scholar 

  • Covacevich J., and Archer, M. (1975), The distribution of the cane toad, Bufo marinus, in Australia and its effects on indigenous vertebrates, Memoirs Queensland Museum, 17, 305–310.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cowie, RH. (1992), Evolution and extinction of Partulidae, endemic Pacific island land snails, Philosophical Transactions Royal Society of London B, 335, 167–191.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cowie, R.H., Evenhuis, N.L. and Christensen, C.C. (1995), Catalogue of the Native Land and Freshwater Molluscs of the Hawaiian Islands, Backhuys, Leiden, The Netherlands.

    Google Scholar 

  • DeBach, P. (1974), Biological Control by Natural Enemies, Cambridge University Press, London.

    Google Scholar 

  • Delfosse, E.S. (1988), Echium appeal won by CSIRO, News Bulletin Australian Entomological Society, 24, 149–152.

    Google Scholar 

  • Diamond, J.M. (1984), Possible effect of unrestricted pesticide use on tropical birds, Nature, 310, 452.

    Google Scholar 

  • Drake, J.A., Mooney, H.A., Di Castri F., Groves, R.H., Kruger, F.J., Rejmanek, M. and Williamson M. (eds.) (1989), Biological Invasions: A Global Perspective, John Wiley and Sons, Chichester.

    Google Scholar 

  • Drost, C.A. and Fellers, G.M. (1996), Collapse of a regional frog fauna in the Yosemite area of the California Sierra Nevada, USA, Conservation Biology, 10, 414–425.

    Google Scholar 

  • Duan, J.J., and Messing, R.H. (1996), Response of two opiine fruit fly parasitoids (Hymenoptera: Braconidae) to the lantana gall fly (Diptera: Tephritidae), Environmental Entomology, 25, 1428–1437.

    Google Scholar 

  • Duan, J.J., and Messing, R.H. (1999), Evaluating nontarget effects of classical biological control: fruitfly parasitoids in Hawaii as a case study, in Non-target Effects of Biological Control, eds. P.A. Follett and J.J. Duan, Kluwer Academic Publishers, Boston, pp. 95–109.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ehler, L.E. (1997), Invasion biology, exotic pests, and biological control, in Proceedings International Workshop on Biological Invasions of Ecosystem by Pests and Beneficial Organisms, Tsukuba, Japan, 25-27 February 1997, National Institute of Agro-Environmental Sciences, Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries, Japan, pp. 309–323.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ehler, L.E. (1998), Invasion biology and biological control, Biological Control, 13, 127–133.

    Google Scholar 

  • Elliott N., Kieckhefer, R. and Kauffman, W. (1996), Effects of an invading coccinellid on native coccinellids in an agricultural landscape, Oecologia, 105, 537–544.

    Google Scholar 

  • Englund, R.A. (1999), The impacts of introduced poeciliid fish and odonata on the endemic Megalagrion (Odonata) damselflies of Oahu Island, Hawaii, Journal Insect Conservation, 3, 1–19.

    Google Scholar 

  • Enserink, M. (1999), Biological invaders sweep in, Science, 285, 1834–1836.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Federici B.A. and Maddox, J.V. (1996), Host specificity in microbe-insect interactions, BioScience, 46, 410–421.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ferguson, C.S., Elkinton, J.S., Gould, J.R. and Wallner, W.E. (1994), Population regulation of gypsy moth (Lepidoptera: Lymantriidae) by parasitoids: does spatial density dependence lead to temporal density dependence?, Environmental Entomology, 23, 1155–1164.

    Google Scholar 

  • Ferrar, P. (1993), Controlling pests as nature intended, Search, 24, 232–235.

    Google Scholar 

  • Follett, P.A., Johnson, M.T. and Jones, V.P. (1999), Parasitoid drift in Hawaiian pentatomids, in Non-target Effects of Biological Control, eds. P.A. Follett and J.J. Duan, Kluwer Academic Publishers, Boston, pp.77–93.

    Google Scholar 

  • Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Secretariat of the International Plant Protection Convention. (1996), Code of Conduct for the Import and Release of Exotic Biological Control Agents, Publication No. 3.

    Google Scholar 

  • Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Secretariat of the International Plant Protection Convention. (1998), Guidelines for Pest Eradication Programmes, Publication No. 9.

    Google Scholar 

  • Frank, J.H. (1998), How risky is biological control? Ecology, 79, 1829–1834.

    Google Scholar 

  • Frank, J.H. and McCoy, E.D. (1994), Introduction to behavioral ecology of the protection of native floras and faunas, commercial importation into Florida of invertebrate animals as biological control agents, Florida Entomologist, 77, 1–20.

    Google Scholar 

  • Funasaki, G.Y., Lai, P.Y., Nakahara, L.M., Beardsley, J.W. and Ota, A.K. (1988), A review of biological control introductions in Hawaii: 1890-1985, Proceedings of the Hawaiian Entomological Society, 28, 105–160.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fuxa, J. R. (1987), Ecological considerations for the use of entomopathogens in IPM, Annual Review Entomology, 32, 225–251.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gagné, W.C. and Howarth, F.G. (1985), Conservation status of endemic Hawaiian Lepidoptera, in Proceedings 3rd Congress of European Lepidopterology Cambridge 1982, ed. J. Heath, Karlsruhe (Germany), Societas Europaea Lepidopterogica, pp. 74–84

    Google Scholar 

  • Genthner, F.J. and Middaugh, D.P. (1992), Effects of Beauveria bassiana on embryos of the inland silverside fish (Menidia beryllina), Applied Environmental Microbiology, 58, 2840–28

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Goldson, S.L., Barratt, B.I.P., Barlow, N.D. and Phillips, C.B. (1998), What is a safe biological control agent? In Volume 1, Pest Management-Future Challenges, Proceedings 6th Australasian Applied Entomological Research Conference, Brisbane, Australia, 29 Sept.-2 Oct (1998), eds. M.P. Zalucki, R.A.I. Drew, and G.G. White, Brisbane, Australia, pp. 530–538.

    Google Scholar 

  • Goldson, S.L., McNeill, M.R. and Proffitt, J.R. (1993), Unexplained mortality amongst unparasitised Listronotus bonariensis in the presence of the parasitoid Microctonus hyperodae under caging conditions, in Proceedings 6th Australasian Grassland Invertebrates Ecological Conference, ed. R.A. Prestidge, AgReasearch, Hamilton, New Zealand, pp. 355–362.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gould, J.R., Elkinton, J.S. and Wallner, W.E. (1990), Density-dependent suppression of experimentally created gypsy moth, Lymantria dispar (Lepidoptera: Lymantriidae), populations by natural enemies, Journal Animal Ecology, 59, 213–233.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gould S.J. (1991), Unenchanted evening, Natural History, 91, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14.

    Google Scholar 

  • Grant, P.R. (1986), Ecology and Evolution of Darwin’s Finches, Princeton University Press, Princeton.

    Google Scholar 

  • Griffiths O., Cook, A. and Wells, S.M. (1993), The diet of the introduced carnivorous snail Euglandina rosea in Mauritius and its implications for threatened island gastropod fauna, Journal Zoology (London), 229, 79–89.

    Google Scholar 

  • Groves, R.H. and Burdon, J.J. (eds.) (1986), Ecology of Biological Invasions, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gubler, D.J. (1993), Letter to the editor, release of exotic genomes, Journal American Mosquito Control Association, 9, 104.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Guinea, M.L. (1982), The sea snakes of Fiji, in Proceedings Fourth International Coral Reef Symposium, Manila, 1981, vol. 2, pp. 581–585.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hadfield, M.G. (1986), Extinction in Hawaiian achatinelline snails, Malacologia, 27, 67–81.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hadfield, M.G., Miller, S.E. and Carwile, A.H. (1993), The decimation of endemic Hawaiian tree snails by alien predators, American Zoologist, 33, 610–622.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hadfield, M.G. and Mountain, B.S. (1981), A field study of a vanishing species, Achatinella mustelina, (Gastropoda, Pulmonata), in the Waianae Mountains of Oahu, Pacific Science, 34, 345–358.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hardy, D.E. and Definado, M.D. (1980), Insects of Hawaii, Volume 13, Diptera: Cyclorrhapha III, University Hawaii Press, Honolulu.

    Google Scholar 

  • Herms, C.P., McCullough, D.G., Baue, L.S., Haack, R.A., Miller, D.L. and Dubois, N.R. (1997), Susceptibility of the endangered Karner blue butterfly (Lepidoptera: Lycaenidae) to Bacillus thuringiensis var. kurstaki used for gypsy moth suppression in Michigan, Great Lakes Entomologist, 30, 125–141.

    Google Scholar 

  • Herre, E. A. (1993), Population structure and the evolution of virulence in nematode parasites of fig wasps, Science, 259, 1442–1445.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Hoebeke, E.R. and Wheeler, A.G. (1996), Adventive lady beetles (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae) in the Canadian maritime provinces, with eastern records of Harmonia quadripunctata, Entomological News, 107, 281–290.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hokkanen, H.M.T. and Pimentel, D. (1989), New associations in biological control: theory and practice, Canadian Entomologist, 121, 829–840.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hopper, K.R. (1998), Assessing and improving the safety of introductions for biological control, in Volume 1, Pest Management-Future Challenges, Proceedings 6th Australasian Applied Entomological Research Conference, Brisbane, Australia, 29 September-2 October 1998, eds. M.P. Zalucki, R.A.I. Drew, and G.G. White, Brisbane, Australia, pp. 501–510.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hopper, K.R., Roush, R.T. and Powell, W. (1993), Management of genetics of biological-control introductions, Annual Review Entomology, 38, 27–51.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hopper, D.R. and Smith, B.D. (1992), Status of tree snails (Gastropoda: Partulidae) on Guam, with a resurvey of sites studied by H.E. Crampton in 1920, Pacific Science, 46, 77–85.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hostetter, D.L. and Puttier, B. (1991), A new broad spectrum nuclear polyhedrosis virus isolated from a celery looper, Anagrapha falcifera (Kirby) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae), Environmental Entomology, 20, 1480–1488.

    Google Scholar 

  • Howarth, F.G. (1985), Impacts of alien land arthropods and mollusks on native plants and animals in Hawaii, in Hawaii’s Terrestrial Ecosystems: Preservation and Management, eds. C.P. Stone and J.M. Scott, University Hawaii Press, Honolulu, pp. 149–179.

    Google Scholar 

  • Howarth, F. G. (1991), Environmental impacts of classical biological control, Annual Review Entomology, 36, 485–509.

    Google Scholar 

  • Howarth, F. G. (1999), Environmental risks of biological control of vertebrates, in Problem Snake Management: the Habu and Brown Treesnake, eds. G. Rodda, Y. Sawai, D. Chiszar, and H. Tanaka, Cornell University Press, Ithaca, pp. 399–410.

    Google Scholar 

  • Howarth, F.G., Nishida, G. and Asquith, A. (1995), Insects of Hawaii, in Our Living Resources, ed. E.T. LaRoe, Washington (DC): USDI-National Biological Service, pp. 365–368.

    Google Scholar 

  • Howarth, F.G. and Ramsay, G.W. (1991), The conservation of island insects and their habitats, in The Conservation of Insects and Their Habitats, eds. N. Mark Collins and J.A. Thomas, Academic Press, London, pp. 71–107.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hunter, CD. (1994), Suppliers of Beneficial Organisms in North America, California Environmental Protection Agency, Sacramento.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hurst, G.D.D., Majerus, M.E.N, and Fain, A. (1997), Coccinellidae as vectors of mites, European Journal Entomology, 94, 317–319.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jepson, P.C. (ed.) (1989), Pesticides and Non-Target Invertebrates, Intercept, Wimborne, UK.

    Google Scholar 

  • Jervis, M.A. (1997), Parasitoids as limiting and selective factors: can biological control be evolutionarily stable? Trends in Ecology and Evolution, 12, 378–380.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Johnson, D.M and Stiling, P.D. (1996), Host specificity of Cactoblastis cactorum (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae), an exotic Opuntia-feeding moth in Florida, Environmental Entomology, 25, 743–748.

    Google Scholar 

  • Johnson, M.S., Murray, J. and Clarke, B. (1986), Allozymic similarities among species of Partula on Moorea, Heredity, 6, 319–327.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kareiva, P. (1996), Special feature, contributions of ecology to biological control, Ecology, 77, 1963–1964.

    Google Scholar 

  • King, C. (1984), Immigrant Killers: Introduced Predators and the Conservation of Birds in New Zealand, Oxford University Press, Oxford

    Google Scholar 

  • Kinzie, R.A. III. (1992), Predation by the introduced carnivorous snail Euglandina rosea (Ferussac) on endemic aquatic lymnaeid snails in Hawaii, Biological Conservation, 60, 149–155.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lai, P.Y. (1988), Biological control: a positive point of view, Proceedings of the Hawaiian Entomological Society, 28, 179–190.

    Google Scholar 

  • Laurance, W.F., McDonald, K.R. and Speare, R. (1996), Epidemic disease and the catastrophic decline of Australian rain forest frogs, Conservation Biology, 10, 406–413.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lima, P.J. (1989), United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) safeguards for introducing natural enemies for biological control of weeds, in Proceedings VII International Symposium Biological Control of Weeds. 6-11 March 1988, Rome, Italy, ed. E.S. Delfosse, Ist Sper. Patol. Veg. (MAF), Rome, pp. 109–115.

    Google Scholar 

  • Line L. (1995), Swarming Halloween bugs eat aphids, haunt humans, Science Times: The New York Times, October 31, 1995, C1, C9.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lockwood, J. A. (1993a), Environmental issues involved in biological control of rangeland grasshoppers (Orthoptera: Acrididae) with exotic agents, Environmental Entomology, 22, 503–518.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lockwood, J. A. (1993b), Benefits and costs of controlling of rangeland grasshoppers (Orthoptera: Acrididae) with exotic organisms: search for a null hypothesis and regulatory compromise, Environmental Entomology, 22, 904–914.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lockwood, J. A. (1996), The ethics of biological control: understanding the moral implications of our most powerful ecological technology, Agriculture and Human Values, 13, 2–19.

    Google Scholar 

  • Louda, S.M. (1998), Population growth of Rhinocyllus conicus (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) on two species of native thistles in prairie, Environmental Entomology, 27, 834–841.

    Google Scholar 

  • Louda, S.M., Kendall D., Conner, J. and Simberloff, D. (1997), Ecological effects of an insect introduced for the biological control of weeds, Science, 277, 1088–1090.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Malakoff, D. (1999), Fighting fire with fire, Science, 285, 1841–1843.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Marshall, S. (1995), Ladybird, fly away home, Seasons, 35, 30–33.

    Google Scholar 

  • McEvoy, P.B. (1996), Host specificity and biological pest control, BioScience, 46, 401–405.

    Google Scholar 

  • Meffert, L.M. (1999), How speciation experiments relate to conservation biology, BioScience 49, 701–711.

    Google Scholar 

  • Memmott, J. (1999), Food webs as a tool for studying nontarget effects in biological control, in Non-target Effects of Biological Control, eds. P.A. Follett and J.J. Duan, Kluwer Academic Publishers, Boston, pp. 148–163.

    Google Scholar 

  • Miller, J.C. (1990a), Field assessment of the effects of a microbial pest control agent on nontarget Lepidoptera, American Entomologist, 36, 135–139.

    Google Scholar 

  • Miller, J.C. (1990b), Effects of a microbial insecticide, Bacillus thuringiensis kurstaki, on nontarget Lepidoptera in a spruce budworm-infested forest, Journal of Research on the Lepidoptera, 29, 267–276..

    Google Scholar 

  • Miller, M. and Aplet, G. (1993), Biological control: a little knowledge is a dangerous thing, Rutgers Law Review, 45, 285–334.

    Google Scholar 

  • Miller, R.R., Williams, J.D. and Williams, J.E. (1989), Extinctions of North American fishes during the past century, Fisheries, 14, 22–38.

    Google Scholar 

  • Mooney, H.A. and Drake, J.A. (eds.) (1986), Ecology of Biological Invasions of North America and Hawaii, Springer-Verlag, New York.

    Google Scholar 

  • Moore, N.W. (1989), The Bird of Time, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.

    Google Scholar 

  • Morell, V. (1999), Ecology returns to speciation studies, Science, 284, 2106–2108.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Muniappan, R. (1990), Use of the planarian, Platydemus manokwari, and other natural enemies to control the giant African snail, in The Use of Natural Enemies to Control Agricultural Pests, Bay-Peterson, Food and Fertilizer Technology Center for the Asian and Pacific Region, Taipei, Taiwan, pp. 179–183.

    Google Scholar 

  • Murray J., Murray E., Johnson, M.S. and Clarke, B. (1988), The extinction of Partula on Moorea, Pacific Science, 42, 150–153.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nafus, D.M. (1993), Movement of introduced biological control agents onto nontarget butterflies, Hypolimnas spp. (Lepidoptera: Nymphalidae), Environmental Entomology, 22, 265–272.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nicholson, A.J. (1933), The balance of animal populations, Journal of Animal Ecology, 2, 132–178.

    Google Scholar 

  • Onstad, D.W. and McManus, M.L. (1996), Risks of host range expansion by parasites of insects, BioScience, 46, 430–435.

    Google Scholar 

  • Peacock, J.W., Wagner, D.L. and Schweitzer, D.F. (1993), Impacts of Bt on non-target Lepidoptera, Newsletter Michigan Entomological Society, 38, 1,4,5.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pedigo, L.P., Hutchins, S.H. and Higley, L.G. (1986), Economic injury levels in theory and practice, Annual Review Entomology, 31, 341–368.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pennisi, E. (ed.) (1997), Random samples, rampaging rabbit virus-again, Science, 277, 1441.

    Google Scholar 

  • Perkins, R.C.L. (1897), The introduction of beneficial insects into the Hawaiian Islands, Nature, 55, 499–500.

    Google Scholar 

  • Perkins, R.C.L. (1913), Introduction to Fauna Hawaiiensis, ed. D. Sharp, University Press, Cambridge, Vol. 1, xv–ccxxvii.

    Google Scholar 

  • Pimentel D., Glenister, C. Fast, S. and Gallahan, D. (1984), Environmental risks of biological pest controls, Oikos, 42, 283–290.

    Google Scholar 

  • Robinson, G.S. (1975), Macrolepidoptera of Fiji and Rotuma, Classey, Oxon.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rodda, G.H., Fritts, T.H. and Chiszar, D. (1997), The disappearance of Guam’s wildlife, BioScience, 47, 565–574.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rodenhouse, N.L. and Holmes, R.T. (1992), Results of experimental and natural food reductions for breeding black-throated blue warblers, Ecology, 73, 357–372.

    Google Scholar 

  • Roderick, G.K. (1992), Postcolonization evolution of natural enemies, in Selection Criteria and Ecological Consequences of Importing Natural Enemies, eds. W.C. Kauffman and J.R. Nechols, Thomas Say Publications in Entomology, Entomological Society of America, Lanham (MD), pp. 71–85.

    Google Scholar 

  • Roderick, G.K. and Howarth, F.G. (1999), Invasion genetics: natural colonization, non-indigenous species, and classical biological control, in Biological Invasions of Ecosystem by Pests and Beneficial Organisms, eds. E. Yano, K. Matsuo, M. Shiyomi, and D.A. Andow, National Institute of Agro-Environmental Sciences, Tsukuba, Japan, NIAES Series 3, pp. 98–108.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rosen, D. (1986), The role of taxonomy in effective biological control programs, Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment, 15, 121–129.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Rosen, D. and DeBach, P. (1992), Foreign exploration: the key to classical biological control, Florida Entomologist, 75, 409–413.

    Google Scholar 

  • Samways, M.J. (1995), Insect Conservation Biology, Chapman and Hall, London.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sandlund, O.T., Schei, P.J. and Viken, A. (eds.) (1996), Proceedings Norway/UN Conference on Alien Species, 1-5 July 1996, Norservice, Trondheim, Norway, p. 233.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sands, D.P.A. (1997), The’ safety’ of biological control agents: assessing their impact on beneficial and other non-target hosts, Memoirs of the Museum Victoria, 56, 611–615.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sands, D.P.A. (1998), Guidelines for testing host specificity of agents for biological control of arthropod pests, in Volume 1, Pest Management-Future Challenges, Proceedings 6th Australasian Applied Entomological Research Conference, Brisbane, Australia, 29 September-2 October 1998, eds. M.P. Zalucki, R.A.I. Drew, and G.G. White, Brisbane, Australia, pp. 556–560.

    Google Scholar 

  • Savidge, J.A. (1987), Extinction of an island forest avifauna by an introduced snake, Ecology 68, 660–668.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schaefer, P.W. (1996), Releases of Dinorhynchus dybowskyi in U.S.A. (Heteroptera: Pentomidae) and apparent failure to establish, Entomological News, 107, 277–280.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schaefer, P.W., Fuester, R.W., Chianese, R.J., Rhoads, L.D. and Tichenor, Jr. R.B. (1989), Introduction and North American establishment of Coccygominus disparts (Hymenoptera: Ichneumonidae), apolyphagous pupal parasite of Lepidoptera, including gypsy moth, Environmental Entomology, 18, 1117–1125.

    Google Scholar 

  • Schauff, M.E. and Lasalle, J. (1998), The relevance of systematics to biological control: protecting the investment in research, in Volume 1, Pest Management-Future Challenges, Proceedings 6th Australasian Applied Entomological Research Conference, Brisbane, Australia, 29 September-2 October 1998, eds. M.P. Zalucki, R.A.I. Drew, and G.G. White, Brisbane, Australia, pp. 425–436.

    Google Scholar 

  • Secord, D. and Kareiva, P. (1996), Perils and pitfalls in the host specificity paradigm, BioScience, 46, 448–453.

    Google Scholar 

  • Settle, W.H., Ariawan H., Astuti, E.T., Cahyana W., Hakim, A L., Hindayana D., Lestari, A.S. and Pajarningsih. (1996), Managing tropical rice pests through conservation of generalist natural enemies and alternative prey, Ecology, 77, 1975–1988.

    Google Scholar 

  • Simberloff, D. (1992), Conservation of pristine habitats and unintended effects of biological control, in Selection Criteria and Ecological Consequences of Importing Natural Enemies, eds. W.C. Kauffman and J.R. Nechols, Thomas Say Publications in Entomology, Entomological Society of America, Lanham (MD), pp. 103–117.

    Google Scholar 

  • Simberloff, D. and Stiling, P. (1996a), Risks of species introduced for biological control, Biological Conservation, 78, 185–192.

    Google Scholar 

  • Simberloff, D. and Stiling, P. (1996b), How risky is biological control, Ecology, 77, 1965–1974.

    Google Scholar 

  • Smith, H.R. and Remington, C.L. (1996), Food specificity in interspecies competition, BioScience, 46, 436–447.

    Google Scholar 

  • Starnes, R.L., Liu, C.L. and Marrone, P.G. (1993), History, use, and future of microbial insecticides, American Entomologist, 39, 83–91.

    Google Scholar 

  • Stiling, P. and Simberloff, D. (1999), The frequency and strength of nontarget effects of invertebrate biological agents of plant pests and weeds, in Non-target Effects of Biological Control, eds. P.A. Follett and J.J. Duan, Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht, pp. 31–43.

    Google Scholar 

  • Storey, G.K. and Gardner, W.A. (1988), Movement of an aqueous spray of Beauveria bassiana into the profile of four Georgia soils, Environmental Entomology, 17, 135–139.

    Google Scholar 

  • Strong, D.R. (1997), Fear no weevil? Perspectives, Science, 277, 1058–1059.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Tamashiro, M. (1968), Microbial control in Hawaii, Proceedings of the Hawaiian Entomological Society, 20, 157–167.

    Google Scholar 

  • Tillier, S. and Clarke, B.C. (1983), Lutte biologique et destruction du patrimoine genetique: le cas des mollusques gasteropodes pulmones dans les territoires francais du Pacifique. Genet. Sel. Evolution 15, 559–566.

    CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Tothill J.D., Taylor, T.H.C. and Paine, R.W. (1930), The Coconut Moth in Fiji (A History of its Control by Means of Parasites), Imperial Institute of Entomology, London

    Google Scholar 

  • Turner, C.E. (1985), Conflicting interests and biological control of weeds, in Proceedings Sixth International Symposium on Biological Control of Weeds; 19-25 August 1984; Vancouver, Canada, ed. E.S. Delfosse, Agriculture Canada, Ottawa, Canada, pp. 203–225.

    Google Scholar 

  • Turner, C.E., Pemberton, R.W. and Rosenthal, S.S. (1987), Host utilization of native Cirsium thistles (Asteraceae) by the introduced weevil Rhinocyllus conicus (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) in California, Environmental Entomology, 16, 111–115.

    Google Scholar 

  • U.S. Congress, Office of Technology Assessment (1995), Biologically Based Technologies for Pest Control, OTA-ENV-636. U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington DC.

    Google Scholar 

  • Vitousek, P.M., D’Antonio, C.M., Loope L., Rejmanek, M. and Westbrooks, R. (1997), Introduced species: a significant component of human-caused global change, New Zealand Journal of Ecology, 21, 1–16.

    Google Scholar 

  • Waage, J.K., and Greathead, D.J. (1988), Biological control: challenges and opportunities, Philosophical Transactions Royal Society London B, 318, 111–128.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wagner, D.L., Peacock, J.W., Carter, J.L. and Talley, S.E. (1996), Field assessment of Bacillus thuringiensis on nontarget Lepidoptera, Environmental Entomology, 25, 1444–1454.

    Google Scholar 

  • Walker, G.P., Zareh N., Bayoun, I.M. and Triapitsyn, S.V. (1997), Introduction of western Asian egg parasitoids into California for biological control of beet leafhopper Circulifer tenellus, Pan-Pacific Entomologist, 73, 236–242.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wheeler, A.G. and Hoebeke, E.R. (1995), Coccinella novemnotata in Northeastern North America: historical occurrence and current status (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae), Proceedings Entomological Society of Washington, 97, 701–716.

    Google Scholar 

  • Williamson, M. (1991), Biocontrol risks, Nature, 353, 394.

    PubMed  CAS  Google Scholar 

  • Williamson, M. (1996), Biological Invasions, Chapman Hall, London.

    Google Scholar 

  • Wilson, E.O. (ed.) (1988), Biodiversity, National Academy Press, Washington.

    Google Scholar 

  • Withers, T.M., Barton Brown, L. and Stanley, J. (eds.) (1999), Host Specificity Testing in Australasia: Towards Improved assays for Biological Control, CRC for Tropical Pest Management, Brisbane, Australia.

    Google Scholar 

  • Zenner de Polania, I. and Wilches, O.M. (1992), Impact ecologico de la hormiga loca, Paratrechina fulva (Mayr), en el Municipo de Cimitarra (Santander), Revista Colombiana de Entomologia, 18, 14–22.

    Google Scholar 

  • Zimmerman, E.C. (1958), Insects of Hawaii. Vol. 7 (Macrolepidoptera), University of Hawaii Press, Honolulu.

    Google Scholar 

Download references

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Hawaii Biological Survey, Bishop Museum, 1525 Bernice Street, Honolulu, Hawaii, 96817, USA

    Francis G. Howarth

Authors
  1. Francis G. Howarth
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. University of Sydney, Australia

    Geoff Gurr

  2. Lincoln University, New Zealand

    Steve Wratten

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2000 Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Howarth, F.G. (2000). Non-target Effects of Biological Control Agents. In: Gurr, G., Wratten, S. (eds) Biological Control: Measures of Success. Springer, Dordrecht. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-011-4014-0_13

Download citation

  • DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-011-4014-0_13

  • Publisher Name: Springer, Dordrecht

  • Print ISBN: 978-1-4020-1052-1

  • Online ISBN: 978-94-011-4014-0

  • eBook Packages: Springer Book Archive

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation